THE SMALL YACHT 





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THE SMALL YACHT 

ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 
FOR RACING AND SAILING 

WITH CHAPTERS ON CONSTRUCTION 

BY 

EDWIN A. BOARDMAN 



WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS FROM 
PHOTOGRAPHS 



BOSTON 

LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY 

1909 



^i^' 



Copyright, 1909, 
By Little, Brown, and Company. 



All rights reserved. 
Published, June, 1909. 



THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, U. S. A. 



IlIBRARYoI CONGRESS 
Two GoDie* Received 

JUN 13,1W«« 

1, ASS A AXc No. 



INTRODUCTION 

IN this book I shall endeavor to tell in 
plain words, so that it may be read and 
understood by the youngest amateur 
interested in Small Yacht Racing, some of 
the best methods for tuning up a boat, or, 
in other words, preparing her for a race. 
I shall also explain the various ways and 
means to extricate one's boat from, and gain 
advantage of, a competitor or competitors. 
Of course, in a sport of this sort it is abso- 
lutely impossible to lay down ^^hard and 
fast'' rules, as the change in conditions and 
positions is so very variable. But I think 
the general rules I shall give, in the majority 
of cases at least, have proven successful and 
are in use by the crack amateur sailors in 
this country. 

Racing rules in America are now substan- 
vii 



INTRODUCTION 

tially alike, so that my endeavor to explain 
and illustrate the matter will be of some value 
to all who are interested in racing yachts. 

I shall keep away as much as possible from 
scientific terms which are only known to 
naval architects and professionals, and shall 
explain them, when the use of such terms is 
necessary. 

I shall illustrate my points as far as I can 
with photographs and sketches, but it would 
be impossible to cover all other combina- 
tions and remedies. We all know that ex- 
perience is by far the best teacher, especially 
in racing yachts. In some cases, the ability to 
handle a boat successfully is inborn, thereby 
making it a much more simple matter to 
learn and succeed. 

This work is written from my own experi- 
ences, and I think is the first of the kind un- 
dertaken in this branch of sport. I sincerely 
hope that it will fill the gap there now seems 
to be, in a small way at least, in the yachting 
libraries of the world. 

viii 



INTRODUCTION 

I have divided this book into two parts, 
the first dealing with the preparation of the 
yacht for the race, and the second the sailing 
of the yacht during the race, this being the 
most convenient method. I shall use photo- 
graphs, pen sketches, and plans from my 
office, when and where I deem it necessary, 
and in many instances illustrations will be 
able to show the point better than words. 



IX 



CONTENTS 



PART I 

Chapter Page 

I. General Makeup of the Racing Yacht . 3 

II. Detailed Explanation of Design ... 11 

III. Points on Expert Helmsmen ..... 20 

IV. Set of the Racing Sails 24 

V. Condition and Construction of the Body 

OF THE Yacht 33 

VI. Uses of Paint and Black Lead for Outer 

Surface 46 

VII. Canvas vs. Wooden Skin 52 

VIII. Hauling and Drying Out 55 

IX. Rigging, Blocks, etc 58 

PART II 

I. Handling the Racing Yacht in General 67 

II. Laying Courses, Setting Marks, etc. . 75 

III. Direction of Wind in Regard to Course 77 

IV. Flying and Time Starts 79 

V. Maneuvering for Position at Start . 81 

VI. First Leg to Leeward or Windward . 85 

VII. Rounding Marks 87 

VIII. Allowances for Tide or Current — 

Shoal Spots 91 

xi 



CONTENTS 

Chapter Page 

IX. Beating to Windward 94 

X. Reaching 97 

XI. Running Before the Wind 100 

XII. When Two Boats are Converging . . 104 

XIII. Two Boats Approaching a Mark . . . 108 

XIV. Many Boats Approaching a Mark for 

Purpose of Rounding Ill 

XV. The Team Race 120 

XVI. The Match Race 126 

XVII. The Fleet Race 131 

XVIII. Setting and taking in Light Sails . . 133 

XIX. Reefing 137 

XX. Accidents to Sails, Spars, Rigging, or 

Crew 139 

XXI. Positions of Crew during Race . . . 143 

XXII. Compass Courses 146 

XXIII. Types of Small Racing Yachts in 

America 148 

XXIV. Salt vs. Fresh Water 150 

XXV. Necessity of Expert Judges or Timers 153 

XXVI. International Small Yacht Racing . 155 
XXVII. The Cost and Expense Account of the 

Racing Yacht 158 

XXVIII. Laying Up for the Winter Season . . 160 

XXIX. Amateurs and Professionals 162 

XXX. The Magnitude of Racing in America 164 
XXXI. The International Sonder Class of 

Germany, Spain, and the United States 166 



Xll 



ILLUSTRATIONS 



FACING PAGE 

t* Manchester," winner International Seawanhaka Cup, 1905. 
A good example of the 40-foot racing machine at high 
speed. Note easy entrance and smooth wake Frontispiece 

Seawanhaka Cup challenger ^^ Manchester ^"^"^ in 1905, owned by 
Br. J. L. Bremer^ designed by E. A. Boardman^ and ivinner of 
Seawanhaka Cup. Sailing the triangular course of twelve knots in 
one of the races in the record time of one hour^ thirty-two minutes^ 
and fifty seconds. 

Racing scow " Manchester," showing greatly increased water 

line length even in light wind 4 

Seawanhaka Cup challenger ^^ Manchester.'''' 

With sheets slightly lifted, showing smooth wake from star- 
board quarter 4 

Seawanhaka Cup challenger ** Manchester.'*^ 



A start of the 18-foot knockabout class in Massachusetts 
Bay, showing boats to windward outpointing those to 
leeward, and the possibility of lacing these boats down 5 

Seawanhaka Cup challenger '* Manchester," showing correct 
sailing list at high speed and position of crew. Note 
windward rudder clear of the water and only slight 
feather from wake on leeward quarter 12 

A high ended easy formed American Sonder Class boat. 

An excellent type for almost any conditions . , . . 13 

Sonder Class boat ^^Marla^'^ owned by M. and R. L. Agassiz and 
designed by William Gardner. 

xiii 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING PAGE 

Dead before the wind. A good example of the high-cut 

spinnaker 26, 

^^Chewink /TV' 30-foot class, owned by F. G. Macomber and 
designed by the Herreshoff 3Ianufacturing Company. 

A good example of light sails , 27 

Bar Harbor one design class boat ^^Cricket,^^ owned by H. M. 
Sears and designed by the Herreshoff Manufacturing Company. 



A quartering wind with spinnaker set in proper position, 
well forward and drawing well. No balloon jib neces- 
sary 

Massachusetts Bay 22-foot cabin boat ^'•Peri 11,^^ owned by George 
Lee and designed by E. A. Boardman. 



30 



Running up on a sea before the wind, showing bad lift of 
main boom and correct way of spilling wind from spin- 
naker into jib 30 

Massachusetts Bay 18-footer '•'•Bonitwo,''^ owned by G. H. Wight- 
man and designed by B. B. Crowninshield. 

An excellent example of a beautiful suit of sails, and long 

taper spars 31 

Quincy Cup defender ^^ Outlook.'^ 

Narrow, scow formed Sender boat with long, straight side. 
She was second choice for the American team of 1906. 
A good example of the high, narrow rig 60 

Sonder Class boat '■^Auk,^^ owned by Hon. Charles F. Adams 2dj 
designed by E. A. Boardman^ and one of the American team in 1906 
against Germany. 

21 -foot water line unballasted racing scow with 1500 square 

feet of sail area, and 44 feet over all 61 

Quincy Cup challenger ^^ Lookout " in 1901 and winner of Quincy 
Cup. Owned by A. Henry Higginson and Reginald Boardman and 
designed by David Fenton. 

Close hauled, showing large flat bow of racing scow ... 61 

Seawanhaka Clip cfiallenger '■^3fanchester.^^ 

xiv 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING PAGE 

Light weather, showing position of crew, placed in order to 

heel boat to good sailing angle 68 

Seawanhaka Cup boat ^^TunipooJ*'' 

Just starting to lift windward rudder out of water .... 68 

Seawanhaka Cup boat '^Tunipoo.''^ 

A high ended easy formed Sonder boat. She was first 

choice for the American team in 1907 to go to Germany 69 

Sonder Class boat ^^ Spokane^'*'' oivned by Vice Commodore F. Lewis 
Clark of the Eastern Yacht Club, and designed by Tarns, Lemoine^ 
and Crane. One of the American team in 1907 against Germany, 

Start, Sonder Class trial race, 1906. Note boat bearing 
away, having reached flag mark too soon (before gun 
fire) 80 

Off Marblehead, Mass. , in 1906. 

Third boat from right-hand end of picture has best of it, as 
she is to windward, with her wind clear and actually 
ahead 80 

Start of one of the Sonder Class trial races in 1907 for selection 
of American team to go to Germany. 

Just after a start in one of the International races with Ger- 
many in 1906. Leading German boat bearing away to 
recross, having gone over line before gun fire. The 
ensigns at the peak designate the boats 81 

Just after start of a German-American race for the Roosevelt 
Cup in 1906. 

A start before the wind. Three sister boats leading ... 86 

Start of the 18-foot knockabouts in a Corinthian Yacht Club {Mar- 
blehead, Mass.) Championship race in Marblehead harbor; ''^Baty^^ 
**Arrow,^^ and ^^Boo IIoo " leading. 

A start to windward in a breeze. Note No. 12 lifting well 

out on a sea 86 

Start of the Massachusetts Bay 18-foot knockabout class. 
XV 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING PAGE 

Unrestricted 21-foot water line scow, exaggerated form. 
Spinnaker and main boom spreading almost 100 feet. 
Note size of figures on deck 87 

Quincy Cup defender '•'■ Outlook.'''' 

Broad reach in a good breeze, showing clean lifting bow 

wave 92 ' 

Massachusetts Bay 18-footer " Moslem 11^^'' owned hy B. 
Devereux Barker and designed by E. A. Boardman. 

Correct heel for windward work, lee rail just awash ... 92 

Massachusetts Bay 18-foot knockabout ^^Mirage,^^ owned by J. W. 
Olmstead and designed by E. A. Boardman. 

Pretty well smothered up in a heavy northwester. Note 
form of mainsail by seam lines, only leach of sail 
drawing 93 

Massachusetts Bay 18-foot knockabout '■'■Boo Hoo^^'' owned by 
Reginald Boardman and designed by E. A. Boardman. 

Note position of main boom for light weather work ... 96 

Seawanhaka Cup challenger ^^ Manchester.''^ 

Windward side, showing long straight sailing lines and port 

rudder. Weather bilge-board hoisted 96 

'■'■Tunipoo,'''' Seawanhaka trial boat in 1905, owned by Dr. J. L. 
Bremer and designed by E. A. Boardman. 

On a close reach at good speed. Easy formed scow Sonder 
boat. First choice for the American team of 1906. A 
very fast boat in light weather. Note especially smooth 
wake 97 

Sonder Class boat ^^Caramba,^^ owned by C. H. W. Foster^ 
designed by E. A. Boardman, and one of the American team in 1906 
against Germany. 

Just after the start of the Massachusetts Bay 18-foot knock- 
about class. First leg a broad reach, showing how boats 
spread out on a start of this sort 108 

Just after the start of the Massachusetts Bay IS-foot knock- 
abouts. 

xvi 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING PAGE 

Just after the start in close quarters. No. 24 in weather 
berth and in leading position. A good example of the 
18-foot knockabouts 108 

Massachusetts Bay 18-footers, one design class : ^^Bat,^' "^rroM7," 
**Fudgey^' and '■'■Boo Hoo.^^ Owners: Hon. Charles F. Adams 2dy 
Edwin A. Boardman, C. II. W. Foster, and Reginald Boardman. 
These boats were successful in their match team races sailed off 
Provincetown, Mass.^ in 1904, against a Herreshoff one design 
class. 

Fleet of spectators running back to Marblehead after one of 

the Sonder Class races with Germany in 1906 .... 109 

An idea of the fleet of spectators during the Sonder races with 
Germany in 1906. Vice- Commodore F. Lewis Clark^s flagship 
^^ Emerald " is seen on the extreme right under hare poles. 

Three of the contestants taken during one of the Inter- 
national Sonder Class races in 1906. American boat to 
windward. Note very flat sails on the two German 
boats 109 

Sonder Class boats ^^Caramba'''' {U. S.), ^'■Tilly'''' (Germany), and 
*^Wannsee " {Germany) in one of the races for the Roosevelt Cup in 
1906. (Reading from left to right): '■'■Caramba,'''' owned by C. H. 
W. Foster; ^^ Tilly, ^^ by Messrs. Dollman <Sc Krogman ; and 
"irann^ee," by Wannsee Sailing Club. 

Just after the start during one of the Sonder Class trial races 
in 1906. Fleet just beginning to split up. Note bow 
wave on No. 5 as she jumps into a short sea .... 130 ^ 

Sonder Class trial race for selection of American team in 1906. 
No. 5, Herreshoff boat ^^Chewink^\- No. 10, Boardman boat ^'■Man- 
chester. ' ' 

An almost perfect start, the entire fleet on the starting line, 

with starboard tacks, as the whistle blows 130 

Start of one of the Sonder Class trial races in 1906. 

A flat formed, low ended Sonder Class boat, showing lifting 

tendency of bow wave even in very light weather . . 144'' 

Sonder Class boat '■'■Manchester 11,^^ owned by Br, J. L. 
Bremer and designed by E. A. Boardman. 

xvii 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING PAGB 

Exaggerated type of the narrow flat Sonder boat, showing 
position of crew on lee rail in order to heel boat to proper 
sailing angle in light weather 144 

Sonder class boat "^IwA;," one of the Roosevelt Cup defenders in 
1906 against Germany. Owned by Hon. Charles F. Adams 2d and 
designed by E. A. Boardman. 

Going to windward. Note correct position of man on 

weather rail 145 

Massachusetts Bay 18-footers ^^ Arrow " and ^^Bat.^^ 

Going to windward in light weather. Weather boat running 

up on sea and blocking leeward one 145 

Massachusetts Bay 18-fooiers, '•'• Fritter ^'' {No. 29) and ''Baty 
'■^Fritter " owned by Augustus P. Loring and designed by \V. S. 
Burgess ; '•''Bat " owned by Hon. Charles F. Adams 2d and designed 
by E. A. Boardman. 

21-foot water line unrestricted racing scow, 50 feet over all, 
1900 feet of sail in mainsail and jib. Built on steel 
truss. About the limit that this type can go and stiU 
hold together 148 

Quincy Cup defender ^^ Outlook " and successfid defender in 
1902. Owned by A. Henry Higginson and Reginald Boardman et 
al., designed by W. Starling Burgess. 

Three hulled boat built on wire trusses on 21-foot water line 
with 2000 square feet of sail. She was impossible to 
handle in anything other than very light weather, hav- 
ing no ballast 149 

Quincy Cup trial boat ^^Hades^^^ owned by a 3Ianchester Yacht 
Club syndicate and designed by B. B. Crowninshield. 

The Eastern Yacht Club at Marblehead, Mass. , home of the 

Sonder Class in America 156 " 

The German flag and the United States ensign are flying on the 
flagstaff. Photo taken during the International races in 1906. 

German team in American waters in 1906 157 

The German trio for the Roosevelt Cup in 1906. 

xviii 



ILLUSTRATIONS 

FACING PAGE 

During one of the International races with Germany in 1906. 

The three American boats in the background leading . 157 

A short while after a start in one of the German-American races 
for the Roosevelt Cup in 1906. 

Fine ended Sonder Class boat. One of the American team 
in 1906 and winner of the Roosevelt Cup. A splendid 
type of small yacht 170 

Sonder Class boat "Fm," owned by Trenor L. Park, designed 
by William Gardner. 

Sonder Class boat with cat rig. A fast rig to windward in 
smooth water, but of no use in other conditions. 550 
square feet of sail in the mainsail 171 

Sonder Class boat ^'■Ellen,^^ owned by C. P. Curtis and designed 
hy E. A. Boardman. Rigged as a cat boat in the early season of 1906. 



XIX 



LIST OF DESIGNS 



FACING PAGE 

Design 12a. Lines of an excellent type of Massachusetts 
Bay 18-footer, showing high ends with moderate formed, 
easy, round body, and good freeboard 10 

Design 12h. Construction plan of Massachusetts Bay 18- 
footer, showing plank-on-edge mast-step and simple 
construction 11 

Design 12c. Sail plan of Massachusetts Bay 18-footer, hav- 
ing a short bowsprit and mainboom well inboard. A 
very satisfactory rig, well balanced, and easy to handle 16 -^ 

Design 14. Lines of a Massachusetts Bay 18-foot center- 
board boat, ballast on a shoal keel. An excellent, safe, 
centreboard type 17 

Design 21a. Lines of the popular type of 30-foot water line 
cruiser and racer, showing long shoal keel, good dead- 
rise, and easy high ends 34 

Design 2lb. Construction plan of 30-footer ...... 35 

Design 21 c. Sail plan of 30-footer showing very short bow- 
sprit and moderate rig, a good combination for ease in 
handling 36 ^ 

Design 21d. Cabin plan of 30-footer, showing roomy accom- 
modations for a comparatively small bodied boat . . 37 

Design 26a. Construction plan showing plank-on-edge 
trusses, diagoiial decking, and bilge boards, as used 
on a Seawanhaka International Cup boat 52 ^ 

xxi 



LIST OF DESIGNS 

FACING PAGE 

Design 26b. Showing the exaggerated scow form and shoal 

body of Seawanhaka International Cup boat .... 53 

Design 26c. Sail plan showing the queer centered rig of the 
Seawanhaka boat, the sails being inboard both at bow 
and stern 55 

Design 38a. Lines of Sonder boat, showing hard bilge, 
bulbed lead on fin, and long low-overhangs with heavy- 
reverse curve in profile 166 

Design 386. Construction plan of Sonder boat, showing 
heavy plank-on-edge trusswork, bulbed lead, etc. Mast 
in position for catboat rig 167 

Design 38c. Sail plan for catboat rig on Sonder boat. 550 

square feet in mainsail alone 168 

Design 37a. Lines of an easy formed scow Sonder boat, 

with round bilge 169 

Design 376. Construction plan of Sonder boat showing 

plainly the plank-on-edge construction 172 

Design 46. Lines of a broad, moderate ended Sonder boat, 

with slight reverse in the profile 173 

Design 42a. Lines of Sonder boat with round, easy body, 

high ends, shoal draft, and small beam 176 

Design 426. Construction plan of Sonder boat, a type well 

suited to severe conditions 177 

Design 42c. Sail plan of Sonder boat, showing long base 

to fore-triangle 178 

Design 40. Lines of a very broad, lightly ballasted Sonder 

boat, showing immense overhangs 179 

xxii 



LIST OF DESIGNS 

FACING PAGE 

Design 41a. Lines of a very deep Sender Class boat, with 

moderate formed upper body 180 

Design 416. Sail plan of jib and mainsail rig for Sonder 

boat, showing large mainsail and small jib . . . 181 

Design 51. Lines of the easy formed, round bodied Sonder 

boat, showing moderation in each dimension . . . . 182 



XXlll 



PART FIRST 



THE SMALL YACHT 

PART FIRST 

CHAPTER I 

GENERAL MAKEUP OF THE RACING YACHT 

THE general tuning up of a racing 
boat (I speak of the smaller classes, 
and of wooden boats, not metal, as 
their treatment would be quite different) 
consists in perfecting various members that 
go to make up the whole and then the treat- 
ment of the yacht as a unit. We will take as 
an example the twenty-one foot water-line 
knockabout, or raceabout, the type of which 
is fast spreading over the entire globe. 

This boat embodies five separate elements 
that are essential to speed : first, the design ; 
second, the helmsman; third, the set of the 
sails; fourth, the condition of the surface 

3 



THE SMALL YACHT 

of the boat that comes in contact with the 
water; fifth, the general construction. I do 
not say that these are necessarily the order of 
importance, but they are the main features. 

I will first take up the general requisites of 
design, and these depend on the type and 
class you intend to build in, also whether you 
will sail the majority of races in home waters 
or abroad. If an owner can tell an architect 
the general weather conditions to be met with, 
then the architect can design the boat ac- 
cordingly, and in many cases this knowledge 
of conditions means success where other- 
wise it would be failure. For instance, if 
your majority of races are in Massachusetts 
Bay, especially at Marblehead, where the 
weather and wind conditions are generally 
light, with a long easy ground swell, the type 
of model which has proven itself to be supe- 
rior is the round, easy form, easy in move- 
ment and quick to get headway in the light 
conditions. 

Quite opposite to these conditions of wind 

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'••i¥-^ •••-"Ytiniiffi 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

and water are those of Kiel, Germany, or 
those of the South Shore of Massachusetts 
and Connecticut, more especially perhaps 
Buzzards Bay in Massachusetts. I mention 
these localities merely as examples, so that I 
may better show the different conditions to 
be provided for. 

The prevailing wind on the South Shore 
is the strong, smoky southwester, and this, 
with the strong current in Long Island Sound, 
stirs up a very heavy, short, quick sea. With 
the shoal depth of water in Buzzards Bay, 
the effect is the same. 

The boats that seem to be best suited to 
these conditions are the wide, powerful cen- 
terboards, with large flat bottoms, giving a 
very large initial stability and showing great 
power to stand up and sail. 

I will give here two illustrations of the 
" center board " and "keel" types, pitted 
against each other under the different con- 
ditions just mentioned. 

A ''centerboard" boat came to Marble- 

5 



THE SMALL YACHT 

head and raced a fleet of ''keel" boats, being 
badly worsted by seventy per cent of the fleet. 
Another year the crack ''keel" went to Buz- 
zards Bay, and in a match race was beaten 
by a "centerboarder." This goes to show the 
general idea, but, of course, there are excep- 
tions to the rule. 

Again, this idea of design depends a great 
deal on the restrictions of the class in which 
you are going to build, as different restric- 
tions work out in favor of one or the other 
type in all conditions of weather. 

We will now turn to the very important 
factor in the success of the racing yacht, the 
helmsman and crew. As the racing to-day, 
in at least a great many classes, is among one 
design boats, and in a great many others 
practically one design (as the various sets of 
class restrictions limit the variance in the 
design), it sends the trend of naval architec- 
ture in one direction, and thus it comes down 
to the successful management of the yacht, 
broadly speaking. 

6 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

In the classes in this part of the world there 
are always one, two, or three men who are 
considered to be somewhat superior to the 
other sailors in the fleet ; this, however, should 
never discourage the younger men, as there 
is example after example of cases where, by 
keeping at it, they, in time, catch up and pass 
the older men. As beginners they have over- 
looked the small things that seemed in those 
days insignificant, but are now being care- 
fully taken care of. Thus, as in no other 
sport, the details should be carefully looked 
after. 

The set of the sails is, of course, a matter 
of the greatest importance, the boat's only 
means of propulsion being the sails, and espe- 
cially in a boat sailing to windward the least 
pocket or flat spot in the wrong place will 
greatly retard her progress; more so than 
most people imagine, as it is a very slight 
moment of positive pressure that she is sub- 
jected to. This sail matter is not so important 
when the yacht is running free, as then it is 

7 



THE SMALL YACHT 

simply an area of cloth, held out for the 
wind's direct pressure. 

Another point well to mention here in a 
general way, is the skin resistance, that is, 
the water touching the sides and bottom of 
the boat's body. Surface friction is a great 
detriment to a boat's headway through the 
water, and we are yet a long way off from a 
discovery of some really good coating that 
will satisfactorily stand against the action of 
salt or fresh water, while still gi\^ng the least 
possible resistance to the water passing by it. 
There are, to-day, all sorts of paints, greases, 
black lead, and the bare metal bronze plates 
of the large yachts, and it is far from being 
decided which is superior for a racing com- 
position, although almost every one has his 
preference, and thinks his own coating infi- 
nitely superior to his rival's. 

On the general construction of a small 
yacht depends, in a great measure, the sur- 
face you are able to obtain on the outside of 
the planks. A boat must be built as light as 

8 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

possible, yet have a great rigidity in order to 
hold her form and prevent buckling and 
twisting as far as possible, so that the putty 
and seam filling placed between the planks 
shall not have a chance to work out and 
so break the outer surface, at once offering 
added resistance to the water as the surface 
becomes roughened. In the case of the deep 
keel boats with from two thousand to six 
thousand pounds of lead hung on a slight 
narrow fin, the chances for twist and strain 
are very great, especially as this lead has a 
^reat leverage, being down five to eight feet 
below the surface. This means, to prevent 
leakage, etc., that the construction must be 
of the very best and most carefully thought 
out and put together, the best of material 
being used, including the toughest and light- 
est of woods and non-corrosive metals. 

I have now given, in a general way, the 
most necessary points that go to make up 
speed in yacht racing. They all overlap each 
other and rely on one another; all are im- 

9 



THE SMALL YACHT i 

portant and cannot be too carefully worked 1 

up to perfection. I have intended this i 
chapter to be simply a synopsis of ^'Part 

First/' and will give the detailed accounts in ! 

the Chapters following. j 



10 



CHAPTER II 

DETAILED EXPLANATION OF DESIGN 

THEORY, practice, experience, actual 
tests, lifelong study, all based on 
common sense, are the requisites 
that help to make the successful design. 
As the saying goes, a yacht cannot sail faster 
than the slowest part of the hull can be driven. 
In other words, a beautiful bow, showing 
speed lines in every curve, accompanied by 
a poor stern, means that the boat as a unit 
cannot go faster than the stern, and thus it is 
the combination of bow, stern, and middle 
body that goes to make up the yacht as a 
fast sailing unit. Symmetry in design is one 
of the greatest factors of success, the bow must 
fit the stern, the rig, the body, and the centers 
must be in correct relationship to one another 
at all angles of heel to make a good all-round 
boat. 

11 



THE SMALL YACHT 

The centers that I mention above are the 
center of gravity of the lead ballast on the 
keel, the center of gravity of the entire craft, 
the center of buoyancy of the hull, the center 
of lateral resistance or actual plane, this being 
in some cases simply the center of the fin or 
keel in flat bottom boats, the rudder some- 
times being taken into consideration, and be- 
ing the center of the entire submersed body 
as a plane in ''V" shaped bottom boats. 
The center of effort is the center of efficiency 
of the sail spread, as a plane. 

Designers vary in their ideas in regard to 
the relationship of these centers to one an- 
other, and, of course, the relationship changes 
a great deal in the different types of yachts, 
the combination depending on the form, 
whether she be scow or wedge bottom. 

In the scow form, the center of buoyancy 
quickly shifts to leeward depending upon the 
angle of keel, and as the yacht is water-borne 
practically from stem to stern on a long 
straight side or sailing line, she does not 

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ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

have the tendency to twist and turn but sails 
straight ahead on her form and does not take 
hold on her rudder. In her upright position 
she is a flat, square plank, short on the water- 
line for measurement purposes, but heeled 
over to her proper sailing angle, she at once 
becomes a long, narrow cigar-shaped craft, 
getting the benefit of her huge overhangs, her 
sailing length being practically that of her 
over-all length. 

An excellent example of boats of this sort 
are the great scows that recently raced for 
the Quincy Cup in Massachusetts Bay, their 
dimensions being fifty-five feet over-all, and 
twenty-one feet on the water-line, but their 
actual sailing length was fifty feet, a tremen- 
dous increase. 

The Seawanhaka International Cup boats 
are another good example of this sort of thing. 
This type, forty feet over-all, twenty-five feet 
water-line, eight feet beam, and five inches 
draft, weighing twenty-five hundred pounds, 
without ballast except for their steel or 

13 



THE SMALL YACHT 

bronze bilge boards (which weigh about one 
hundred and twenty-five pounds each), are 
the fastest yachts of their sail spread in the 
world, the area being five hundred feet. 

In the actual drafting of a design, the first 
step after you have decided on the class is a 
study of the restrictions under which the boat 
will be built, determining by these and by the 
previous performances of the yachts in the 
class what combination of dimensions will 
turn out the fastest boat, taking everything 
into consideration. This being decided upon, 
a brown paper sketch is drawn of the profile, 
deck line, and midship section. When these 
suit your ideas lay same down on the final 
drafting paper and work in the body 
plan. 

Then comes the sail and construction plan, 
and cabin last of all, if there happens to be 
one. From the finished lines a table of offsets 
is taken in feet, inches, and eighths for the 
use of the builder in laying the boat down, 
full size, on the floor of the drafting loft ; and 

14 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

from this the builder makes his moulds for 
setting the boat up in the shop. 

This seems simple enough, but requires an 
infinite amount of care and perseverance. 

A few of the points necessary to be figured 
out are given in the following table. All of 
these are of actual use, some directly and 
some as references for future designs: 



Number ; Name.. 

Type 

Built for by.. 



.Boston, 190 



Design begun . . 
Length over-all . 
Length water-line 

Overhang forward 
Overhang aft . 
Beam extreme 
Beam W. L. . 
Beam transom 
Freeboard stem 
Freeboard least 
Freeboard transom 
Draft extreme 
Draft to fairbody 
Draft board down 



Area L. W. L. plane 
Area amidship section 
Maximum girth of hull 



..Contract price. 
Launched 



Design finished. 

Pounds per inch at L. W. L. 

Poimds to alter W. L. 1 in. at L. 
W. L. 

Area "lateral plane of hull. 

Area lateral plane below fairbody. 

Area centerboard. 

Area rudder. 

Total lateral plane below fairbody. 

Total wetted surface. 

Area sails actual. 

Area sails rated. 

Ratio sail area to wetted surface. 

Ratio sail area to lateral plane. 

Ratio displacement cu. ft. to cube 
of L. W. L. 

Ratio displacement cu. ft. to mid- 
section X L. W. L. 

Ratio displacement cu. ft. to deck 
area X depth hull. 

Ratio length to beam at L. W. L. 

15 



THE SMALL YACHT 

Displacement ...... Ratio overhangs to L. W. L. 

Outside ballast Ratio ballast to displacement. 

Inside ballast Ratio rudder to balance lateral 

plane. 

Total ballast Ratio (C. B. aft W. L.) to L. W. L. 

C. G. outside ballast aft of Ratio (C. V. L. P. aft W. L.) to L. 

C. B W. L. 

Ratio (C. E. to C. L. P.) to L. W. L. 
Ratio (C. E. to B. P.) to L. W. L. 

Index to Table 

L. W. L. Load water-line. 

C. G. Center of gravity. 

C. B. Center of buoyancy. 

C. V. L. P. Center vertical lateral plane (meaning fin or keel). 

C. E. Center of effort (of sails). 

C. L. P. Center of lateral plane (meaning entire immersed 
body). 

B. P. Balancing point. 

It was not so very long ago that the fac- 
tors in the table were never thought of in the 
design of the small racer, and the boat was 
built from a wooden model whittled out of a 
block of wood to suit the eye of the builder, 
the centers, displacement, etc., being simply 
guessed at, and the builder trusted to luck 
that they would come right. But to-day 
instruments are used to get the different 
areas, etc., and the designer is much more 
sure of himself than under the old rule of 
thumb system, the weights of the wood used 

16 




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bowsprit and mainboom well inboard. A very satisfactory 

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in construction and the ability of the builder 
to follow the plans being the only real 
uncertainties. 

In the racing knockabout of to-day we 
have a small boat that comes nearer being 
perfection for salt water purposes than any 
other type of small yacht in the world yet 
produced. This boat is first of all very safe 
and seaworthy, being practically non-cap- 
sizable, very easy to handle and with small 
sails. She moves through the water with 
very little resistance, either in light winds or 
heavy, is quick to turn, and certainly a pleas- 
ure to steer. Her wake is smooth, well 
ironed out, she opens the water nicely, going 
partially through and partially over it; the 
bow wave being practically spray with no 
heavy curl of solid water to be thrown aside ; 
and in the bow wave there is enough lifting 
force, as the overhang scoops out over the 
surface or through a sea, to carry her head 
well clear and free from solid water, so dif- 
ferent from the old style of straight-stemmed 
2 17 



THE SMALL YACHT 

boat that became very dangerous when being 
driven hard in a breeze. The deep forefoot 
and sharp entrance would grip the water, 
slue around and bury, often capsizing the 
yacht, and this danger has been absolutely 
done away with. 

Another very important point in the present 
design is the balancing of the sails with the 
hull so that the boat shall steer, no matter on 
what angle of heel. 

The center of eflFort of the working sails 
comes slightly forward of the center of the 
mainsail, and the placing of the mast and 
entire rig depends on where the center of the 
lateral plane is. It is necessary, in wide 
shoal boats, to place the center of effort well 
forward of the center of L. P. as the center of 
buoyancy quickly shifts to one side, and to 
make them steer properly on this heel the 
lead of the sails should be large, especially 
where the rudders are small, as for instance 
on the unballasted scow. 

On narrow wedge bottom boats the lead is 

18 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

not so great, as the center of buoyancy stays 
more nearly in the same place and the boat 
consequently is much easier to steer as the 
pressure on the rudder is not so great, be- 
cause when the rudder is hauled well to one 
side it quickly kills the headway and is a 
great detriment to speed, and should be kept 
as near the center line of the hull as possible, 
and still have the boat go to windward. 



19 



CHAPTER III 

POINTS ON EXPERT HELMSMEN 

THE man at the wheel, or tiller, as is 
more apt to be the case in small 
racing yachts, is the man on whom 
the winning of the race depends. It is nec- 
essary that he be cool-headed and resource- 
t/ 

ful at all times, knowing when to take ad- 
vantage of his opponents, and having foresight 
to see far enough ahead that either by getting 
into or keeping away from a luffing match, 
or something of the sort, he may finally land 
himself in first place. He should be deliber- 
ate, and yet when he makes up his mind to 
do something, should not ask everybody in 
the crew their opinion, but act quickly. And 
in this he has a great advantage over his 
brothers of a few years ago, in that the vessel 
he is handUng turns almost in her own length 
at full speed, and is off on the other tack in a 

20 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

very few seconds; whereas it was an under- 
taking of almost minutes, so to speak, for 
the craft of a few years ago to be brought 
into stays and filled away on the other 
hitch. 

It is an excellent thing, however, to have 
one man who understands the matter to 
watch the other boats and keep the skipper 
informed of their movements, especially when 
you are leading and the helmsman does not 
want to take his eyes off his own boat, even 
for an instant. 

Besides these few necessities embodied in 
the crack helmsman, he should have the 
finesse in touch on the tiller, never gripping 
it so that the muscles in his arm are at a 
tremendous tension, but simply holding the 
stick as lightly as possible, so that it shall not 
get away, and feeling his boat in every jump 
in a seaway, favoring her in every helpful 
slant of wind, not roughly, but gently, and by 
so doing keeping her headway. 

A very important point which puts the 

21 



THE SMALL YACHT 

quick, nervous man at a disadvantage, and 
especially in the modern boat, is the method 
of tacking. He is apt to fling her about by 
forcing the tiller hard down, and thus scoop- 
ing off to leeward on the other tack before 
he can stop her twisting motion, and so losing 
some of the previous distance already gained 
to windward, besides killing her headway, 
sending her through a path the shape of the 
letter ''S." A man cannot be too careful in 
tacking, and he should learn the queer ways 
his craft has and how to favor her, as every 
boat is different and should not necessarily 
be treated as her sister. 

Be cool, level-headed, know your boat 
from the top of the mast to the bottom of her 
keel, notice her sails and how she feels best 
to you ; in other words, when she feels sym- 
pathetic she is probably doing her best for 
you; then note how everything stands, treat 
her as a living thing and not as pure wood 
and metal ; know the distance she will travel 
in certain conditions in a given length of 

22 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

time ; know her every mood. Racing yachts 
do have their off days ; treat her accordingly. 

The man steering should never place him- 
self in a cramped or uncomfortable position, 
but should be so situated as to be able to see 
his boat and sails. Lying on one's stomach on 
the weather rail is distinctly bad, as it means 
a broken neck to see what should be seen. Do 
not do this unless you can sail your boat by 
the feel of the helm, as only a very few of the 
best skippers can do. 

Know when you have the right of way and 
take it, unless you are going to spoil your 
chances of a win by accident and smash up 
with another boat, then merely tick your 
opponent, or let him go with a few words of 
advice. 

Know enough about your racing rules to 
cover any bluff, and never take unnecessary 
chances unless they are absolutely essential, 
but where they are needed, play the game for 
all it is worth, as every second counts in the 
racing boats of to-day. 

23 



CHAPTER IV 

SET OF THE RACING SAILS 

THE set of the racing sails, the all- 
important factor, the only means of 
propulsion for the wind-driven craft, 
means something in itself, as the yacht with 
this power alone moves at a speed faster 
than a great many of the largest steam yachts. 
The curvature, smoothness, correct cut 
and shape, rigidity, and staying power of the 
cloth, sometimes as light almost as a hand- 
kerchief, are great factors in the yacht's speed. 
Do not treat the sail as an inert object, there is 
life in its every movement, and it is the engine 
that drives the yacht, the wind, the power. 

This subject cannot be covered in a chapter 
or a volume, or possibly in many volumes, as 
there is considerably more in a sail than ap- 
pears to the casual observer. Men of brain 
and thought have worked for years trying to 

24 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

find out the correct sail and reach a belief 
in certain theories, only to have their ideas 
shattered at some future time. It seems al- 
most an impossible equation to solve the 
power of wind on sails. The best sailmakers 
of to-day differ in their opinions as to how 
the different sails should be cut, fullness 
here, fullness there, a little more sweep to 
foot or head, the angle of the gaff to the hoist, 
and a thousand other details. Who is cor- 
rect.^ Some say one, some say another, but 
nobody knows. Is it a possible thing to ever 
find the correct answer.^ 

How should the sail be made to get the 
greatest driving power, point into the wind's 
eye, and have the least resistance for the 
movement through the atmosphere.^ And 
again, should this perfect sail be changed in 
shape to suit more exactly the type of yacht 
it is going to drive ? There is no doubt about 
it. The sail should fit the boat's model ; that 
seems to be the general opinion, but we do 
not actually know it ; it is simply an opinion. 

25 



THE SMALL YACHT 

On the present small racing yachts of the 
knockabout type, where the area is restricted 
to small sails, the best mainsail, with the 
greatest driving power, is one cut with a fair 
amount of draft or fullness in by the mast, an 
easy sweep to the center, and flattening out 
to a flat plane at the leech. This makes a 
nice hook for the positive pressure to work 
in and drive the boat ahead, and also allows 
the negative energy of the wind to escape 
freely and with the least possible resistance 
over the flat after end of the sail, this, of 
course, applying on windward work alone. 
Off the wind the entire area is positive pres- 
sure and driving the boat ahead. I am not 
considering the action of the lateral plane on 
the water. 

The jib should be of the same general idea, 
a little fullness along the hoist and a flat 
leech. If the leech of any sail has a tendency 
to hook over, wooden battens placed in pock- 
ets in the sail at right angles to the leech will 
flatten it; and if it still has a tendency to 

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ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

angle over at the inner end of the battens, 
the sail needs hauUng out on the boom and 
gaff. The expensive sails of to-day, cross-cut, 
that is, with the cloths running perpendicular 
to the leech, can be cut close to the limit on 
the measurements, as the tendency to stretch 
is very much lessened over the old-fashioned 
up and down sail. The reason for this is in 
the weave of the cloth. It is composed of a 
plain weave lengthwise of the cloth in the 
warp, and the cross thread is the filling. The 
filling thread shows almost no corrugation 
from the action of the loom, it being all in the 
warp ; there being thirty per cent take-up in 
the warp and ten per cent in the filling. This 
shows the amount of corrugation in the warp 
thread, and the minute strain is put on this 
cloth the warp has a tendency to straighten 
out, consequently stretching the cloth. Thus 
the cross-cut arrangement of cloths simplifies 
the matter for both makers and users. 

In drafting the general plan for the shape 
of sails, keep the type of craft in view. If she 

27 



THE SMALL YACHT 

is powerful, a high narrow rig with a high 
center of effort is advisable; if she is Hght 
and tender, make the rig lower. The boom 
at the mast should be well above the deck to 
insure a free draft of wind when heeled down 
in moderate weather, and the entire sail can 
be lowered down in a heavy breeze if there is 
a sliding gooseneck. The angle of the gaff 
to the mast should not be too small, as it is 
difficult to make the sail set with too high a 
peak. The jib should be placed well off the 
deck and preferably on a short bowsprit, in 
order to insure a good draft and the use of 
every square inch of canvas, providing there 
is no restriction on the fore triangle area. It 
should also be held well away from the mast 
so as not to throw back- wind into the mainsail. 
On the other hand, the jib should not be set 
too far forward, thereby spoiling the unity of 
the plan by so splitting it up. 

A great many people believe in the high 
narrow rig, as the sail is then cutting a longer 
column of air than the lower rig with the same 

28 



i 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

area would, but it is more difficult to make the 
high rig stand to its work in a breeze, and con- 
sequently should not be overdone. 

The weight of the cloth is another impor- 
tant factor in the set of the sail. Five to seven 
ounce duck of the most expensive sort is 
about the right weight for a mainsail of five 
hundred square feet in area, with a jib of the 
same weight. For a mainsail of seven to nine 
hundred square feet the weight should be 
eight to ten ounce. 

The light sails on the small racer should 
be cut and set correctly, as well as the work- 
ing suit. It is well to have two sizes of spin- 
nakers, as when there is enough wind blowing 
to lift the sail, then you can stand one of 
greater area, but in the light winds, either 
dead before it or slightly across the wind, the 
small sail will filL out and do its work better, 
as it is cut well off the water and does not lap 
past the mast so far. It thus allows a draft 
past its edges which the larger sail will not do. 
I believe thoroughly in the small spinnaker 

29 



THE SMALL YACHT 

over the very large one, as it is possible to 
carry it well forward in a breeze and utilize it 
for a balloon jib, which sail is not allowed on 
most of the racing knockabouts. I have won 
many races solely due to a small, well-setting 
spinnaker carrying it even to windward in 
very light drifts, when on account of its light 
texture it was the only sail that showed full 
and drawing. Some people have a theory 
that you should put all the cloth possible into 
a spinnaker, regardless of the shape and set. 
This seems to me wrong, and I consider it an 
error to get the wind piling up against itself 
in a great bag, rather than a moderately flat 
sail that allows the wind a chance to escape 
around its edges, and in its stead getting the 
full force of the new air, which seems to have 
greater force and drive. Always keep your 
spinnaker pole as nearly at right angles as 
possible to the direction of the wind; too 
much care cannot be used in this matter. 
Also the spinnaker sheet should be worked in 
conjunction with the guy, keeping the sail at 

30 




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ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

all times straight across the wind, and not 
allowing it to fill out around the head stay, 
thereby getting back-pressure, as well as 
forward. 

In balloon jibs the cut will vary according 
to the shape of the fore triangle. But the 
important thing is to be sure the luff is set up 
at great tension, as a slack luff will mean a 
poor sail. The sail should stand well off the 
deck and water, so that the lee-bow wave 
shall not be thrown into it to any great ex- 
tent. It should also come fairly well aft, to 
allow for bellying out to leeward, as the sail 
is not carried to windward in a breeze on ac- 
count of being made of too light duck, and 
also because of the tendency it has to back 
wind the mainsail. 

The No. 2 balloon sail, or sometimes 
called ^^ reaching jib," is made of heavier 
cloth, cut considerably smaller, and can be 
carried with the wind fairly well ahead, even 
to windward in light weather. 

In reefing, great care should be used in 

31 



THE SMALL YACHT 

pulling the sail out on the boom. It should 
not be more than hand stretched, and if there 
is rain or fog during the race, be sure to shake 
out your reef on returning to the mooring. 
It is also a good idea to loosen up the head 
and foot on the spars and allow the sail to 
shrink evenly as much as it will, rather than 
hold it taut on the spars while the center con- 
tracts, thereby getting a hollow leech. Little 
points of this sort are invaluable in the life 
and set of the racing sail, although a little 
more trouble at the time. 



32 



CHAPTER V 

CONDITION AND CONSTRUCTION OF THE BODY 
OF THE YACHT 

THE racing surface or the outer skin 
of a yacht depends largely on the 
material, workmanship, and designed 
type of construction. 

If the yacht has an excellently planked 
body, thoroughly smoothed off, sand-papered, 
and rubbed to a high polish, and the internal 
construction is not sufficiently well designed 
to take the twisting strains, thrust of the 
mast, etc., then the best surface that can be 
prepared on the railway cannot hold its 
smooth form, because the yacht in twisting 
and pounding squeezes the putty and cork- 
ing from the seams, and long lines of rough 
ridges appear on the surface. This makes it 
necessary to haul out again, which is a nui- 
sance and an added expense. 
3 33 



THE SMALL YACHT 

In double-planked boats, of course, this 
trouble is eliminated. The cost of building, 
however, is necessarily greater, but it is not 
every builder who can double-plank a thin 
skinned boat successfully ; keeping the outer 
skin perfectly tight so that practically no 
moisture can get in between the skins and so 
warp and swell them that the surface be- 
comes humpy and the planks split. It is nec- 
essary to have the stock for double planking 
thoroughly dried and put together in the most 
painstaking manner. 

For the above reasons, it is usually prefer- 
able to build the racer single skinned, and to 
build her early in the year, so that she may 
have a chance to settle into shape as the units 
in her construction become settled, also that 
the putty may harden, thereby having much 
less tendency to be squeezed out after launch- 
ing. This will give the advantage, in at least 
the earlier spring races, over the yacht that 
was hurriedly built at the last minute and put 
overboard. This one will not show the sur- 

34 




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ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

face, and is much more apt to twist and pull 
out of shape, feeling to a person on board 
actually limber as compared with planking of 
the other, which is hard and firm. 

Another nice way of constructing the light 
skimming dish racer is the plan adopted by 
the Canadians for the last ten years in their 
Seawanhaka Cup boats. This is to use some 
hard wood, such as Spanish cedar or mahog- 
any, flush seamed and fastened to the frames 
with small brass nails or tacks, clinched over 
on the inside of the frame, and with the head, 
which is small, left flush on the outer surface. 
This construction is, perhaps, more liable to 
leakage, but it is a splendid foundation for 
an exceptionally high-polished surface. 

If, when a yacht is hauled out on the rail- 
way for cleaning and a surface, she is not 
allowed to thoroughly dry out, and the plank- 
ing remains damp and punky, the surface can 
never show or take a high polish, on account 
of the soggy foundation. Air the boat out, if 
the weather is good, as a thorough drying 

35 



THE SMALL YACHT 

never seems to hurt the little racer, and will 
always help materially toward a good racing 
surface. 

BUILDERS' SPECIFICATIONS FOR SONDER 
CLASS YACHT 

(This general form may also be used for almost any 
small class of racing or cruising-yacht.) 

Specifications No, 00 
In General 

In carrj^ing out these specifications, it is un- 
derstood that all workmanship and materials 
shall be of the best procurable of their kind, in 
every respect; that the stock shall be clear, well 
seasoned, and free from all defects ; and that the 
boat shall be built, fitted, and furnished with 
everj'thing necessarj^ and customary in a boat 
of this type, whether specially mentioned in these 
specifications or not. 

The specifications and drawings are intended 
to co-operate, so that any works exhibited in the 
drawings and not mentioned in the specifications, 
or vice versa, are to be executed the same as if 
they were mentioned in the specifications, and 
set forth in the drawings, to the true meaning 
and intention of the specifications and drawings, 
36 



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ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

without any extra charge whatsoever. No change 
to be made from the plans or specifications by 
the builder, except upon written instructions 
from the architect. 

Dimensions 

Length over all Beam 

Length on L. W. L Draft 

Moulds and Ribbands 

Moulds, made accurately to fit the design, to 
be spaced every two feet, six inches, accurately 
lined up and braced to keep them in their posi- 
tions. Ribbands to be of hard pine at least 1^ 
X lY, secured to the moulds and closely spaced. 
The keel to be thoroughly stayed to prevent it 
from being moved during construction. Moulds 
to be left in the boat until she is sufficiently built 
to insure her holding her shape. 

Ballast and Keel Bolts 

Ballast to be . . . lbs. of lead in a solid smooth 
casting, which is to be weighed and a record kept 
of all trimmings. Lead to be bolted to keel with 
two 1'' and two f diameter bronze bolts, headed, 
or with nuts screwed on the lower ends, and set 
up with nuts and washers through oak floors and 
keel, as shown on plan. 
37 



THE SMALL YACHT 

Keel 

Keel of oak sided the same as the rabbet for 
entire length, and moulded V abreast of fin. 
Keel to be steamed and bent to shape shown on 
plans, and thoroughly held to that shape. 

Deadwood 

Upper part of deadwood to be of Georgia pine, 
lower part of Georgia pine, as indicated on plan. 
Edges of deadwood and keel to be thoroughly 
painted before bolting together. 

Stem 

Hackmatack natural crook, sided 2Y and 
moulded as shown; to be fastened to keel with 
three ^'' diameter bronze bolts set up with nuts 
and washers. 

Sternboard 

Mahogany f" thick, fitted with suitable cleats 
on forward side, to take ends of planking. Stern- 
board to be steamed and bent to the required 
shape and secured there. 

Frames 

Selected white oak f '' X f '' steamed and bent 

to shape. All frames to be spaced 6'' on centers. 

Fourteen frames abreast of mast to be 1^' X ^", 

as shown on plan. Seventeen frames abreast of 

38 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

fin to be butted on keel, as shown in midsection. 
All other frames to be in single lengths from 
gunnel to gunnel, except three pairs in bow and 
three pairs in stem, which shall be single moulded 
from hackmatack natural crooks. 

Planking 

White cedar of as light weight as possible. All 
planking except garboards where shown, to be 
f finished. Garboards of Georgia pine 1" thick 
amidships. Planking to be in as long lengths as 
is possible and have the best of stock. Butts to 
be well shifted. All planks to be rounded or 
hollowed wherever necessary, to accurately fit 
shape of moulds. 

Floors 

All main floors to be of oak, others of spruce, 
except one in extreme bow which is to be of hack- 
matack. Two floors through which 1" keel bolts 
set up, to be sided 2^ in the middle, and moulded 
and tapered as shown on plan. One floor for- 
ward and one floor aft of these to be sided 2^\ 
otherwise the same. One floor forward and one 
floor aft of these last-mentioned floors to be 
sided ly throughout, and moulded to conform 
with the others. One floor at each end of the 
L. W. L. to be sided 1^'' and moulded 2'' in the 



THE SMALL YACHT 

middle, and tapered to ends. One deep floor at 
mast, as shown in section, sided 1". All other 
floors to be sided V\ and moulded 1^ in the 
middle, and tapered to ends. Floors to extend 
between bilge stringers except where shown 
differently. Four large floors abreast of fin, and 
one at each end of the L. W. L. to be tied to the 
bilge stringers with brass knees screwed to both 
floors and stringers. 

Clamps and Bilge Stringers 

Clamps of Georgia pine in single lengths, 1^ 
X 2'' in the middle, tapered to V X l^ at ends. 
Bilge stringers of spruce f" X 3^' amidships, 
and tapered as shown on plan. Stringers to be 
set on edge at angle shown in midsection, and 
lapped by each other amidships as shown. 
Stringers to be connected with deck beams by 
pine struts where shown. White pine truss on 
bilges for about 25^ amidships, as shown on 
plans. 

Deck Beams 

Two partner beams and beam at each end of 
L. W. L. to be of oak 1^-'' X l^'^ Beam at jib 
stay, beams at each end of cockpit, and traveler 
beams to be of oak 1^'' X 1^''. All other beams 
to be of spruce f X If'. All beams to be notched 
40 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

over clamps as shown. All beams to be spaced 
9'^ on centers except where otherwise indicated. 
The center line of the deck is to be straight from 
stem to sternboard, and beams crowned to con- 
form to this. 

Deck 

Deck of f" white pine, tongued and grooved, 
covering boards of mahogany 2'' wide. Deck to 
be painted except covering boards, which are to 
be finished bright. 

Bracing forward 

Backbone forward composed of two f '' spruce 
boards shaped as shown, lapped by each other 
abreast of mast and securely bolted and screwed 
together, as shown. These boards to rest on 
frames and be notched carefully over floors. 
Fastenings to be 2^ brass screws from outside 
through keel, just clear of every other frame. 
Backbone to be braced by a pair of V^ hack- 
matack knees where shown, and ^v vertical 
spruce struts between keel and deck where in- 
dicated. Two Ij^ X 1^ light weight galvanized 
steel angles connecting deck and backbone 
where shown. Two f' diam. gal v. steel tie rods 
connecting partner beams and backbone. At 
forward end of L. W. L. a ^ diam. galv. steel 
41 



THE SMALL YACHT 

bolt to connect large floor with deck beam. Bolt 
to set up on deck with a nut and large washer. 

Bracing Aft 

Backbone of spruce f " thick, shaped as shown ; 
to be fastened in the same manner as the forward 
backbone. One 1^'' X 1 J'' light weight galv. steel 
angle connecting deck and backbone. Tie rod 
and strut at after end of L. W. L. the same as 
that at forward end. One Y diam. galv. iron tie 
rod connecting traveler beam and backbone, 
also one Y diam. rod connecting after traveler 
beam and transom knee. 

Cockpit 

Cockpit to be open. Coaming of f" oak. 
Floor of f '' white pine slats 3'' wide, laid directly 
on floor timbers with a Y interval, and made 
removable. Slat seats of f " mahogany, as shown, 
made removable. 

Knees 

Two pairs of lodging knees of 1 J" hackmatack 
abreast of mast. One pair of Ij^' hackmatack 
hanging knees on after partner beam. One pair 
of 1'' hackmatack knees bracing backbone for- 
ward of mast. Three 1" knees on stemboard. 
42 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

Mast Partners 

Mast partners of Ij" spruce thoroughly rodded 
with Y^ galv. iron. 

Chain Plates 

Two chain plates of Tobin bronze 1^' X ^^'^ 
extending V beyond bilge stringers, as shown 
on plan. 

Chain plates to be through fastened to plank- 
ing and keel with \^^ bronze bolts. 

Rudder and Tiller 

Rudder blade of oak next to the stock, and 
yellow pine on the outer edge; to be thoroughly 
rodded together with composition. Stock of 
seamless brass pipe lY outside diameter. Trunk 
of seamless brass pipe l-f^^^ inside diameter. Oak 
tiller three feet long with ball cut on end, to be 
fitted to rudder stock with bronze jaws, cap, and 
bolt. Tiller to be so arranged that it may be 
lifted upright, but not fall below the position 
shown on plan. 

Metal Work and Fastening 

All metal work to be of the best bronze, unless 
otherwise specified. All iron work to be care- 
fully wrought and galvanized. Galvanized iron 
fastenings to be used for deck, cockpit floor, and 



THE SMALL YACHT 

clamps. Plank fastening to be copper, burred 
over washers; heads countersunk and bunged. 
Brass screws to be used where it is impossible to 
rivet. Floors to be fastened to keel with Y gal- 
vanized spikes driven in angling and to the 
frames with copper. 

Painting and Varnishing 

Hull to be calked with cotton and carefully 
smoothed, given priming coat of filler above and 
red lead below water-line, seams filled with putty 
to match color of wood, and varnished or painted 
two coats above the water-line, and painted two 
coats of green enamel copper or some approved 
anti-fouling paint below. Name, Y stripe and 
scrolls to be cut in and gilded with gold leaf. 
Deck to be primed and painted two coats of 
approved color. Cockpit, coaming, tiller, etc., 
to be varnished three coats. Inside of boat to be 
painted two coats of approved color. 

SailSy Spars, and Rigging 

Sails to be supplied by owner, but bent by 
builder. 

Blocks as per special list. 

Spars to be all solid, of the lightest weight 
spruce, clear and sound. Wire rigging of plow 
steel wire rope. 

44 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

Shrouds J" c. Boom bridle f" c. flexible. 

Jib stay f " c. Peak and Throat halliards f " c. 

Preventers f" c. flexible. 

Pennants f" c. Jib halliard f" c. flexible. 

Gaff bridle f " c. flexible. Balloon jib halliard f c. flexible. 

Manila rigging of best four-strand rope. 

Thread Thread 

Main sheet 15 Runners 9 

Main sheet purchase . 9 Halliard purchases . . 9 

Jib sheets 12 Topping lifts of J" d. cotton. 

Spinnaker halliard . . 12 

Bronze turnbuckles (latest pattern) for shrouds 

16 • 

Bronze cleats. Halliard cleats 5''; mooring 
cleat 8''; main sheet cleat 7'^; jamb cleats for 
jib sheets and runners. 

One 9" and one 6'' bronze traveler. 

Spreaders of galv. steel tube to band on mast. 

Equipment 

One 25 lb. galvanized iron folding anchor; 30 
fathoms of lY manila rope; paper bucket; 
double acting brass pump with hose, large size; 
one ring buoy with name of boat painted thereon. 
Boom crutches of hard pine. 



45 



CHAPTER VI 

USES OF PAINT AND BLACK LEAD FOR 
OUTER SURFACE 

THE discovery of some mixture for 
the coating of a yacht's bottom that 
will fill all the needs of the racing 
yachtsman is still far from being made. The 
ideal surface coating for a racing yacht 
should embody the good qualities found in 
copper and white-lead paint, black lead, and 
any other racing compounds of note. The 
qualities necessary in a perfect covering are 
smoothness, giving the least possible friction 
to the water, durability, or being able to 
stand the action of salt or fresh water with- 
out softening or losing its luster, and the 
ability to keep off any growths of animal 
or vegetable nature. Another quality should 
be that exposure to the sun's heat shall not 
blister or soften the coating. 

46 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

The matter of expense is, of course, an ob- 
ject to a great many people, but surfaces that 
are in common use to-day cost a hundred 
times more than any covering or coating 
in reason could possibly sell for, as now it is 
necessary to haul the racing boats out every 
week in order to have the best possible surface. 

From my experience, both with salt and 
fresh water, pot lead or graphite polish, prop- 
erly looked after and applied, seems to be 
the best racing surface for the small boat, the 
great objection being that it is not good for 
more than a week, as it softens after being 
submerged and becomes spongy. 

I think the best preparation of pot lead 
to-day is the graphite powder called ''Black 
Silk" mixed with spirits and varnish, so as 
to make a mixture slightly thicker than 
paint, applied to the hull with a brush. This, 
allowed to dry, becomes fairly hard and dull 
black in color. Then rub down with fine 
sandpaper, or old pieces that have been worn 
more or less smooth, so that the grains shall 

47 



THE SMALL YACHT 

not cut the surface. This hardens, and it 
becomes a shiny, smooth surface. Then a 
rub-down with emery-paper, and lastly use 
newspaper for the final polish. The surface 
depends largely on the amount of elbow 
grease and labor, combined with care, that 
is put into it. The lead should not be put on 
the plain planks, but should have for a foun- 
dation a hard, smooth coat of white-lead 
paint to give it a body. 

The first few coats of black lead w^ill not be 
as satisfactory as the ones later in the season, 
and each coat put on is better than the pre- 
ceding one. You should never attempt to 
paint over black lead, as the paint will not 
stand, but very quickly peels off, much to the 
disgust of the owner. There is no benefit in 
using pot lead unless the owner is willing to 
haul out his boat very often and renew it, and 
it is not as satisfactory as a good surface of 
paint, unless you are willing to do this. Re- 
member that it becomes foul very quick, and 
then is a great disadvantage. 

48 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

There have been in the past few years many- 
different sorts of composition, each one claim- 
ing to be far better than the last. This 
may be so, and every one for some reason or 
other has his pet composition; one reason 
being that it is easier to secure, another, 
that it is better suited to the condition and 
temperature of the water where the racing is 
done. I do not think there is much difference 
between the best grades manufactured by the 
best people. 

For the under-body the light green copper 
paint with a certain amount of varnish in it 
seems to be as satisfactory as any. It stands 
very well, and I have seen it, in some cases, 
come out after one or two months' submer- 
gence with a good gloss and shine. Barnacles, 
however, had adhered in certain places, and 
a few little bunches of weed showed, but on 
the whole it was very good. 

The regular copper paint used on many 
of the large vessels is, of course, an excellent 
preservative against worms and vegetable 
4 49 



THE SMALL YACHT 

growth, but it is very difficult to get a 
racing surface out of it. In the warm 
southern waters it is absolutely necessary 
to have some protection against boring 
worms and other animals, as they wall soon 
perforate the planking and cause much 
trouble. 

For the topsides a nicely smoothed surface 
of white paint or black varnish, standing 
hard, is about as good as anything, and has 
many believers among the racing fleet, with 
a good foundation for their belief. 

Varnished mahogany topsides, when well 
done and cared for, compare favorably with 
anything; but they are a great care, and it 
is necessary to keep working on them to 
preserve the surface free from seam trouble 
and scratches. 

On this matter of racing surface a great 
deal can be said, according to the weather 
conditions in which it is to be used, and I 
know of no composition that can be said to 
be the best under all conditions. 

50 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

Further, it cannot be impressed too strongly 
on the racing yachtsman that the skin fric- 
tion should be reduced to a minimum in 
order to obtain the greatest speed. 



51 



CHAPTER VII 

CANVAS VS. WOODEN SKIN 

NOT a great deal can be said in regard 
to canvas and wooden planks for the 
outside covering of yachts. Canvas 
stretched tightly over very light wood con- 
struction is the lightest possible skin that will 
stay tight without leaking. In small racing 
boats of twelve or fifteen feet in length, built 
of, perhaps, one-quarter inch planking or 
even less, no room is allowed for calking 
or sealing against leakage, and thus canvas 
tightly stretched and smoothly put on, and 
properly filled and painted, does away with 
all necessity of calking and keeps the boat 
tight. 

The largest racing boat I have ever seen 
with a canvas skin was the Quincy Cup De- 
fender ''Outlook," a large freak racing scow. 
She was fifty-five feet long on deck, twenty-one 

52 



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ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

feet water-line, and fifteen feet wide, built of 
light one-half inch white cedar over a steel 
frame and covered with canvas. Canvas con- 
struction was used to a great extent on our 
Western lakes a few years ago, but it is fast 
going out, as it is difficult to stretch it over the 
flat scow of to-day and make it stay in place 
without battens tacked on the outside run- 
ning fore and aft. If any water should get 
in the boat, and it is impossible to keep it 
out, it quickly runs through the planks and 
gets in between . the canvas and the planks, 
thereby swelling the canvas and making it 
baggy and lumpy, and necessitating cutting 
a hole in it to let the water out. 

This same canvas construction w^as used 
on a few of the American challengers for the 
International Trophy, the Seawanhaka Cup, 
but without success. It is all right up to a 
certain point and for freak boats, but gener- 
ally where planking is restricted it is much 
more preferable to accept the full thickness 
of the plank and do away with the canvas. 

53 



THE SMALL YACHT 

On the other hand, there are no seams In 
the canvas to contend with, and you can get a 
splendid one-piece surface ; but I am still of 
the opinion that the wood will take the higher 
polish, either in black lead, paint, or varnish. 
It is almost impossible to keep canvas from 
moving so not to crack a smooth unelastic sur- 
face, and varnish or hard paint once cracked 
is a difl&cult job to patch up. Canvas is, how- 
ever, universally used for deck covering, and 
makes an exceptionally tight construction. 
It makes, also, an exceptionally good footing 
when the deck is wet, being better to walk on 
than any other form of deck. It can be sand- 
papered near the rail and water-way, so as 
to provide little friction with the water on 
deck, and left rough in the main to provide a 
sure footing for the crew to work on. 



64 



I 




Design ^Gc. Sail plan showing the queer centered rig of the 

Seawanhaka boat, the sails being inboard 

both at bow and stern 



CHAPTER VIII 

HAULING AND DRYING OUT 

HAULING out between races for the 
purpose of repairing, drying, and 
polishing is of great importance in 
the racing boat. The boat must be clean, 
light, and in repair in order to be able to get 
the most out of her. 

In hauling out the owner should not al- 
ways trust to the person doing the work, un- 
less he is sure that he knows his business. 
When the boat is clear of the water and in 
position, timbers should be placed under the 
long ends for support, in order to keep them 
from drooping ; also supports or shores should 
be placed at the bilges. It is a good thing 
to run lines from the masthead well out to 
either side in case of emergency, the shores 
sometimes being accidentally knocked away, 
and as the modern boat is only resting on the 

55 



THE SMALL YACHT 

cradle for a few feet amidships she is in a 
very tickUsh position, and should be handled 
carefully or the consequences may be very 
serious. 

See for yourself that she rests properly on 
her fin if she has one, and that she is comfort- 
able in the cradle, with enough props to make 
things secure. Do not allow the shores or 
supports to be driven in under the long over- 
hangs, as that is as bad, and sometimes worse 
than none at all. Shores so driven in are apt 
to spring and soften the ends, putting the 
yacht out of shape. Careless people often do 
this, and afterward wonder why the ends 
droop and rise when the strain of sailing is 
on them. Be sure the weight of the hull is 
properly distributed on the different supports. 
Have the skylights, hatches, etc., removed so 
as to allow a free circulation of air through- 
out the body, for when the yacht is on land 
the air in the hull is not kept cool by the out- 
side elements as it is when in the water, and 
the sun playing and beating down on the boat 

56 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

will make the inside air steam and thoroughly 
saturate everything if not allowed to escape 
when heated. 

If your boat is to be hauled out in prepa- 
ration for a series of races it is an excellent 
scheme to cover her with a canvas tent, get- 
ting thereby the warm drying air, but not the 
intense heat of the sun's rays, which are sure 
to shrink the planking and make it leak. 
Remember, also, that black paint and pot lead 
draw the sun's rays a great deal more than 
white or light colors, the dark colors some- 
times getting so warm that it is almost im- 
possible to hold the hand on them. 

These few points I mention may seem to a 
good many of no account, but they are well 
worth considering, I am quite sure. 



57 



CHAPTER IX 

RIGGING, BLOCKS, ETC. 

THE art of rigging, and such it can 
well be called, plays no small part in 
the success of the racing yacht. The 
rigging is part of the driving power and is the 
cylinder and crank shaft of the engine, and 
must be of the right strength, weight, and pro- 
portion throughout. 

To be perfectly sure of the rig of the racer 
the various parts should be subjected to 
strain before they are put on the craft, and in 
this way one can be fairly sure of their ability 
to stand the wind pressure. 

The blocks that are mostly used to-day are 
made of yellow metal with Tobin bronze 
pins, sheaves, and shackles, thereby making 
more secure the parts that are apt to give 
way. If the blocks are to be used for wire 
rope, especially the main halliard blocks, it is 

58 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDEING 

well to have them made to order, with a large 
diameter sheave or wheel, something after 
the style used on the wire-rope derricks. 
These large sheaves prolong the life of the 
wire, and the guards prevent the wire getting 
out past the edge of the sheave and wearing 
through. 

In the blocks for manila rope it is always 
well to have them large enough for the rope 
to run freely when swelled by water. This 
may save, some day, a grave disaster through 
not being able to get your sail down when it 
is very necessary to work quickly. 

Wooden blocks are not often used on the 
smaller classes, on account of their weight and 
clumsiness, but for anything over twenty- 
five feet water-line and one thousand feet of 
sail they are, I think, preferable to bronze, 
as they are reliable and easy running. 

The size of the wire standing rigging, 
more especially the main shrouds, should be 
thought out very carefully. The strain here 
is very great, and it is essential that the mast- 

59 



THE SMALL YACHT 

head stand straight and rigid in order to 
hold up to its work the driving peak of the 
mainsail, and not allow it to sag off to lee- 
ward and spoil the drive. The ability of the 
craft to capsize, the height of the mast above 
deck, amount of sail to be carried, shape of 
mainsail, width of spreaders, and spread of 
the shrouds at deck are points that govern 
the size of the shrouds. There is always some 
spring in the plow-steel wire now in use, and 
this must be taken into consideration. On the 
other hand, there is no need of steel cables to 
hold the mast of a light racing boat, and I 
think that the tendency among many is to 
make the shrouds too heavy, as it is the 
turnbuckle that usually carries away. Have 
the turnbuckle heavy, if anything, and the 
shrouds large enough so that the spring in 
the wire does not affect the masthead to 
any great extent. 

The lighter grades of flexible wire are now 
often used for the main and jib halliards, and 
such wire certainly is very satisfactory, as the 

60 




Narrow, scow formed Sonder boat with long, straight side. She was 

second choice for the American team of 1906. A good 

example of the high, narrow rig 




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ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

mainsail once set up is not coming and going 
with every draft of wet and dry air, but stands 
where it belongs. 

There is always some give to manila rope 
halliards, and you are sure to have to set up on 
them at some time during the windward work. 
A very good type of halliard is a single piece 
of flexible wire leading from the gaff bridle 
through a single block at the masthead down 
to a purchase or whip, the upper block of 
which is hooked into the eye spliced in the 
end of the wire, and the lower block acts as a 
lead-block. This arrangement when the sail 
is set up makes practically the entire length of 
the halliard wire, leaving only a short end on 
deck of manila, and therefore leaving little 
manila to stretch. Another way in common 
use is to have a wire halliard with a manila 
tailpiece spliced into it, leading through the 
regular series of blocks, having the wire cut 
to a length so when the sail is hoisted the 
wire comes just clear of the cleat and the 
manila tailpiece is then used for cleating. 

61 



THE S^L\LL YACHT 

The rig of the mainsheet is also very im- 
portant on the racing boats when it is nec- 
essary to phiy the mainsail, that is, let it out 
in puffs and haul it in again as the wind 
chano'es its direction slio;htly or lightens. A 
good rig, and I know no better, is to have 
two moving ends, the outer attached to a long 
purchase or tackle which runs through a 
block fastened just aft of the cockpit to one 
side so as to clear the forward traveler, if 
there be two, then aft to the double block on 
the end of the mainsheet, the two ends of 
the whip then leading to cleats pUiced on 
either side of the cockpit, where the mainsheet- 
man usually sits. This arrangement allows 
the mainsheet-man to sit on the rail and play 
his mainsheet without getting into the cockpit 
or putting his weight to leeward, using only 
the whip, leaving the standing part cleated. 

Hollow spars are being used by practically 
all the crack boats in the unrestricted classes, 
and they have a great advantage over the 
solid ones, being more rigid, a great deal 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

lighter, and not so apt to buckle. It is essen- 
tial, however, to have them hung and stayed 
up just right, because they will not buckle to 
any great extent, but break off short. Bands 
and straps, properly padded, should be used 
on hollow spars in the place of eye-bolts, 
screw-bolts, etc., as the shell, which is very 
thin, should not be perforated. 

I have not attempted to go into this matter 
in any detail, but to simply show up a few 
of the important points that should be con- 
sidered. 



PART SECOND 



PART SECOND 

CHAPTER I 

HANDLING THE RACING YACHT IN 
GENERAL 

IN handling the racing yacht the skipper or 
manager of the craft must be sure that 
she is in the best possible condition for a 
hard race. This should be done early in the 
morning, so that when the crew come aboard 
just before the start they will not find a hun- 
dred and one little things to be attended to, 
such as hauling the sails out on the spars, 
setting up the turnbuckles, wreathing new 
sheets or halliards, mending a torn spinnaker, 
or replacing broken battens. 

The boat should be sailed before the race 
in order to get the sails setting well, and to 
find out if anything is wrong and needs to be 
replaced. 

67 



THE SMALL YACHT 

This preparation saves a lot of valuable 
time and worry, and the crew is not hurried 
at the last minute, but can attend to the 
various duties of getting the sails properly 
hoisted, ropes coiled, light sails opened and 
arranged, boat pumped out dry, and a num- 
ber of other small details that are always 
necessary just before the start. The helms- 
man then has time to read his circular, get his 
watch corrected with the guns or whistles, 
study his course, and decide what position at 
the start will be the most advantageous. 

The preparatory gun is fired, and there is 
five minutes before the starting gun goes. 
The berthing of the boat then begins, and if 
the first leg is to windward, the skipper de- 
cides to go over on the starboard tack. Four 
minutes gone ; one more to come ; he begins 
to get near the line, filling and easing the 
sails, giving the boat headway, then killing 
her; ten seconds more, sheets are trimmed 
and she passes the mark with a rush on the 
starboard tack, closehauled, and on gunfire. 




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ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

Then comes a series of hitches, depending 
on how the boat is holding her own or de- 
feating her rivals, and it is good policy to 
keep between the second boat and the mark. 
Remember, if the fleet splits into two divi- 
sions, to use your judgment as to how the 
wind is going to haul, and then go with that 
division, as you cannot cover two fleets. 

Keep your weather eye on the boats near- 
est you in a general way, or have your main- 
sheet-man do it. Know at all times what is 
going on with the others. If you see the 
leader in the other division has a lucky streak 
of wind, and you are defeating your fleet, go 
for the other man, as he has become your 
nearest competitor. In crossing his bows 
put your boat slightly to windward of his 
course and ahead, in a position to hurt him 
as much as possible by breaking up his wind. 
He quickly sees this and comes about, you 
following suit on the instant, always keeping 
between him and the mark. Never let him 
go for an instant, as your advantage in posi- 

69 



THE SMALL YACHT 

tion is very valuable, even if he is slightly 
faster. 

On rounding the mark get your spinnaker 
out as quickly as possible, having decided on 
the last leg to windward on which side to 
carry your pole, so that there shall be no 
delay when once around, because your dis- 
tance will be a great factor when running be- 
fore the wind, as it is the other boat which 
then breaks your wind and blankets you. 

Take your time in setting the spinnaker, be- 
cause hurry sometimes spoils everything, and 
if the sail is set with a twist in it, or gets afoul 
of something half hoisted, it means loss. If 
the third boat is near enough to the second, 
the second will luff out to windward in order 
to keep her wind clear. Allow her to do this, 
but hold your course unless she is near 
enough to bother you, as a straight line is the 
shortest distance between two points. In an 
increasing wind the stern boats get it first 
and so gain, but in a dying wind your slight 
lead becomes greater in actual time. When 

70 



1 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

you cross the finish line get your light sails off 
quickly, but do not allow any of the crew to 
walk around before you have finished, as the 
least movement hurts the sensitive racer. 

In racing boats of the knockabout type, with 
possibly a crew of three, there is no great 
necessity of heavy men, except when it is blow- 
ing very hard ; then the weight counts a great 
deal, as the boat is longer on the water-line, 
keeps her way better through a sea, and is 
held a little more on her feet and at a proper 
sailing angle. In light weather, weight is usu- 
ally a detriment. It is also a great advantage 
to have the same crew right along, because 
they finally get to work as one man. Every- 
body knows what to do without being told. 
The helmsman can usually steer the boat and 
either let go a jibsheet, preventer, or back- 
stay when tacking, leaving only a jibsheet 
and preventer to be taken in and cleated by 
the crew. And if the jibsheet-man is quick 
and gets his jib cleated on the turn or swing 
of the boat, you will be able to have the crew 

71 



THE SMALL YACHT 

always on the rail where the weight tells, and 
is most needed in a breeze, instead of having 
one of the crew pulling at the sheet to leeward 
and fooling around in the water, retarding 
the boat and losing precious seconds, all of 
which should be saved in the modern racer, 
when perhaps ten boats will finish within the 
space of time of one minute. 

In the skimming-dish racer, or the unbal- 
lasted boat, flat bottomed, long flat over- 
hangs, the positions and actions of the crew 
are of very great importance. Then it is abso- 
lutely necessary for the crew to work from 
rail to rail, as the boat swings when tacking, 
attending to their special duties as they move 
across so as to be in position on the weather 
rail when the craft fills away. This type of 
boat is slow in stays compared with the 
ballasted knockabout, and the skipper can 
usually give the crew plenty of time if he is 
careful in the way he tacks. She is light, and 
consequently her momentum is slight and she 
loses her headway very quickly. But, on the 

72 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

other hand, her rudders, if she has two, are 
small, and you must not jamb them across 
her too quickly, as they will push sideways 
through the water and kill what headway 
you have. Feel that they have an effective 
turning grip on the water and let them go at 
that. 

In the bilgeboard boats, in use for the 
Seawanhaka International Cup, it is necessary 
to house one board each time you come about, 
leaving only the leeward one down. The 
mainsheet-man can usually slip the one that 
is lowered, and the regular bilgeboard-man 
take up on the other. The jibsheet-man can 
take care of both sheets which are crossed, the 
leeward one leading to windward, and vice 
versa, and the helmsman can hold the main- 
sheet whip for the mainsheet-man as the 
boat swings, handing it back to him as 
she fills away. This was the practice on 
the successful Seawanhaka Cup Challenger 
''Manchester" in 1905. 

These scow boats are designed to sail on a 

73 



THE SMALL YACHT 

certain list to get the greatest benefit of the 
long straight side, and they should not be 
allowed to heel beyond their angle, because 
the windage of the side coming out to wind- 
ward is tremendous, and they are apt to slow 
up badly when knocked down in the hard 
puffs. It is much better to give them some 
mainsheet and sail them through the squall 
with a good full and going fast; then they 
are manageable, whereas if you allow them 
to stop they become unmanageable, and the 
rudders have no effect, comparatively speak- 
ing, as they are small and near the surface. 
The necessity of good handling shows up 
more in this type than in any other. 



74 



CHAPTER II 

LAYING COURSES, SETTING MARKS, ETC. 

IN laying out the courses you must bear in 
mind that draft of water is essential, and 
there should be at least fifteen feet of 
water everywhere, if possible, so the boat can 
sail freely and not drag bottom. Shoal water 
is quickly discovered, because the displace- 
ment wave is very greatly increased and the 
boat seems to suck and not run freely. Eel- 
grass and growth of any sort must be avoided, 
as sailing in these conditions is unfair to the 
keel boats compared with the centerboards. 
Points of land projecting into the course, or 
islands, should be avoided, for if they are in 
the way it comes down to the most daring 
skipper getting the advantage on account of 
being willing to take chances by going in 
nearer the land, trusting to luck that he will 
not strike. 

75 



THE SMALL YACHT 

The courses are always given on the saihng 
circular, and the person who sets the marks 
must be careful to follow the compass direc- 
tion given, and also be sure to get the length 
of each leg as close as possible to the pre- 
scribed distance, for if it should become nec- 
essary to sail by compass, the skipper must 
feel sure of the position of his marks. 

Never take a small ledge of rocks as a 
turning mark, as is very often done. Each 
mark should be discernible from the other 
with glasses, and should be substantially 
moored so that neither wind nor current can 
move it. 

A bright cone that flashes the sun's rays is 
an excellent device for marks. This, placed 
on the top of a ten-foot pole, can be seen at a 
great distance. The other kind of marks in 
common use are flag marks, barrels, small 
boats, lattice triangles, etc., the cone being 
superior to any other. 



76 



CHAPTER III 

DIRECTION OF WIND IN REGARD TO COURSE 

IN choosing or setting courses the judges 
must always set same according to the 
direction of the wind. If the start be to 
windward, lay the course dead to windward 
and not slightly off ; the starting line at exactly 
right angles to the wind and the first leg, mak- 
ing port and starboard tacks equal in benefit, 
as far as the wind is concerned, thus allowing 
a boat to start at either end of the line. 

If the course is a reach to the first mark, 
place the leeward mark at the end of the line 
nearer to the first rounding mark, so in case 
the boats go over on gun-fire the leeward 
boats will have their wind clear ; this gives a 
chance to spread out, and does not bunch the 
fleet on one spot at the weather end of the line. 
If the start is dead before the wind, the line 
should be set as to windward, making all 

77 



THE SMALL YACHT 

parts of the line equally advantageous to 
start from. The most satisfactory start is 
the windward leg first. This gives a chance 
for maneuvering at the start and brings sea- 
manship and skill into play for the berthing 
of the boat, and is really the most exciting 
and scientific part of the entire race, because 
getting away first in the weather berth means 
minutes as racing is carried on to-day. On 
the other hand, anybody can go over with 
sheets lifted or before the wind, and the skill 
then comes in getting clear of the fleet after 
the send-away. 

In a great many cases the racing clubs are 
restricted in setting their first mark on ac- 
count of a harbor or ledge that cannot be 
escaped or passed except in one direction. 
But if it is possible for a club to start their 
races in the open, then the direction of the 
wind as regards the laying of the course can 
be worked out in the correct manner, and the 
start then affords much more pleasure to the 
contestants. 

78 



CHAPTER IV 

FLYING AND TIME STARTS 

YEARS ago a fleet of yachts was started 
in a race from their anchors, when it 
was necessary to weigh anchor, hoist 
the headsails, and depart. This way of start- 
ing cut out all skill in maneuvering, and it 
came down to the crew who were able to get 
their craft under sail first. 

The time start is now used among the larger 
racing classes, that is, the preparatory signal 
is fired at a certain hour, and from then the 
yachts are under the racing rules. Five min- 
utes after this signal the starting signal is 
given, and the yachts can start any time after, 
within three or five minutes, as the case may 
be. Their time is taken as they cross, up to 
the three or five minute signal, which is the 
handicap gun, and after this signal they are 
handicapped. This kind of start calls for 

79 



THE SMALL YACHT 

jockeying and skill, and among the larger 
yachts, which are slow to turn and act as 
compared with the smaller classes, seems to 
be the best sort of send-away. 

The flying start, however, is the most ex- 
citing, as your time is taken from the send- 
away gun, there being no allowed time to 
start in, but it means handicap if you do not 
get away on gun-fire. This start is used all 
over the country among the smaller boats and 
certainly is by far the best. 

If a time start was given for the smaller 
classes it would be next to impossible to get 
the starting time correct on each boat on ac- 
count of their numbers ; and if the boats were 
sailing in restricted classes, and boat for boat, 
that is, no time allowance, it would mean 
complicated figuring, thus making it impossi- 
ble in many cases to tell who had won until 
the 'Himes" had all been figured out. Such a 
finish is decidedly unsatisfactory. 



80 





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CHAPTER V 

MANEUVERING FOR POSITION AT START 

THE position that a yacht is in at the 
start sometimes is important enough 
in itself to decide the race. Take 
for instance, a fleet of ten or fifteen knock- 
abouts, all practically alike, varying only in 
small details, your boat being the best to 
windward, but only slightly so. Your start 
is bad on account of getting to the line too 
soon and the boats coming along behind you 
take the windward berth, as you have to bear 
away in order not to cross too soon. The gun 
goes and you are covered up, your wind 
spoiled by a number of boats. It then be- 
comes necessary to beat them out, you being 
at a disadvantage to begin with. You finally 
succeed in passing all but one boat; she 
rounds the outer mark ahead, and the next 
leg is a very free run before the wind or a 
6 81 



THE SMALL YACHT 

reach home to the finish Hne ; but you cannot 
catch her, as she is sUghtly faster than your 
boat going off the wind. If, however, you had 
got away clear at the start you would not 
have been blocked by the slow boats on the 
windward leg, and you would have worked 
out a winning lead at the outer mark. This 
is merely an example to show what happens 
time and again when the race is lost on ac- 
count of a poor start. 

Be sure your watch is running all right, and 
test it with some of the guns that are fired for 
the larger classes. Then watch your fleet, 
see what they are going to do, and which end 
of the line has the advantage if there is any. 
If there is none take the starboard tack end, 
as then you will hold the right of way over the 
fleet at the other end. 

Try your boat over an imaginary distance 
to the line and time her carefully, then you 
will know approximately how long it will 
take to sail that distance, and will save get- 
ting to the line too soon at the start, thereby 

82 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

losing your advantage. It is always a good 
rule to be just ahead of your fleet and be 
pushed over the line, so to speak. 

If you think you are going to reach the line 
too soon jibe your boat, if there is room, or 
give her the sheets ; then by pulling the main- 
sail flat in or letting it out you will kill her head- 
way. Be on the alert and take some chances 
if it is necessary to get out of a bad pocket. 

If you need room on the mark to keep from 
striking it, or if some other boat is going to 
strike you if you leave the right-of-way, give 
your adversary plenty of warning by calling 
^'Right-of-way" before it is too late to avoid 
a catastrophe. Be polite in your requests, 
but take your rights, because if you give in 
once you will be expected to again. Use, 
however, common sense, and if your chances 
of winning are pretty good, let the others mix 
it up and come in collision, but keep clear of 
it yourself, sailing out and around the trouble 
and get away clear with a good lead before 
they get separated and started again. 

83 



THE SMALL YACHT 

If the first leg is a close or broad reach to 
the first mark, get to the windward end of the 
line five to fifteen seconds too soon, with your 
sails trimmed flat in and with little headw^ay. 
Then sail down the line, dodging anybody 
coming to it closehauled with the right-of- 
way, and swing across the line on gun-fire, 
having started or freed your sheets to get 
headway a second before, because it is essen- 
tial to have your wind clear on a reaching 
start. If some of the boats to windward get 
into a luffing match, let them go, as the short- 
est distance to a mark is a straight line. If 
the wind is shifty, keep somebody on each 
sheet, trimming and freeing as the wind 
varies its direction. 

There are, of course, hundreds of combina- 
tions in starting, but it is impossible to at- 
tempt to cover them all. 



84 



CHAPTER VI 

FIRST LEG TO LEEWARD OR WINDWARD 

THE position of the boat on the start- 
ing hne depends upon the direction 
of the wind, whether it is a beat or a 
run to the first mark. If it is a beat, and in a 
strong breeze, get everything set up taut, and 
especially the peak of the mainsail. Have 
everything tied down on deck and the boat 
put in good shape. Lie on top of the fleet as 
much as possible before starting so that you will 
have the weather berth when you are off and 
be in the best position for the windward leg. 
If it be a run before the wind, get your 
spinnaker pole and lay it on the side of the 
deck on which you are going to set it. The 
spinnaker should be coiled on deck and the 
head attached to the halliard and hoisted, if 
it is going to be set up in stops and not set 
flying. 

85 



THE SMALL YACHT 

If you see that the boats are bunching at 
one end of the line go to the other and keep 
clear of the fleet. Let them bother each 
other and do the lufiing and blanketing. Sail, 
if necessary, in a slight circle to avoid them 
and do not set or break out your spinnaker if 
it is blowing hard until you have your posi- 
tion fairly well assured. A boat is a much 
handier thing to maneuver, especially in a 
fresh breeze when luflBng is necessary, with- 
out the addition of a kite blowing all over the 
lot. Then, when the proper time comes, set 
your spinnaker quickly and fill away for your 
mark. If an island or any land comes in 
your way for a straight course, cut in as close 
as possible, for you can often gain a little by 
so doing. 

If you get away at the weather end of the 
line, put your spinnaker on directly and keep 
at first a little to the windward of your outer 
mark, so none of the stern boats can spoil your 
wind by blanketing you. 



86 







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c 



CHAPTER VII 

ROUNDING MARKS 

THERE are many effective ways of 
rounding marks, depending on cir- 
cumstances; the direction of the 
next leg in regard to the wind, whether to 
windward or to leeward; the question 
whether you are overlapped by another boat 
or you have an overlap yourself. I might 
explain here that an overlap is established 
when an overtaking yacht has no longer a 
free choice on which side she will pass, and 
continues to exist as long as the leeward 
yacht, by luffing, or the weather yacht, by 
bearing away, is in danger of fouling. 

When you are in the lead and you come to 
the mark, the next boat having a slight over- 
lap, it is necessary by the rules of racing to 
give him room to round without fouling the 
buoy. Bear away as you approach the buoy 

87 




THE SMALL YACHT 

and then swing sharp when abreast of it, 
giving the other boat just room for her bow 
between you and the mark. Point your boat 
as high as possible with your sails trimmed 

flat. You are to 
leeward, but she 
cannot pass you 
as you are throw- 
ing back wind 
into her sails and 
she either has 
to tack or come 
about; and by 
far the best thing 
for her to do, see- 
ing she cannot 
cover you at the 
turn, is to come about around the mark, 
thereby getting her wind clear. Tacking 
around a mark is an excellent thing to do, as 
it allows your sheet-man to pin the sails 
down where you want them without the strain 
of hauling them when they are full. 

88 



Cut 1. Rounding a mark, to go to 
windward. 2d boat does not give 3d 
boat room around the mark, and so 
fouls her, as 3d boat had an overlap 
on approaching it. 1st boat has given 
2d boat room around the mark and is 
placed on the lee bow of 2d boat in 
an excellent position to back wind her, 
quickly drawing out ahead on account 
of it. 6th boat is overlapping 5th boat, 
so 5th boat will be forced to give room 
to No. 6, as they round. 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

When running to a mark with spinnaker 
set, keep your sail on her as long as you dare, 
but be sure to have time enough to take it in 
and get things ready for the windward leg, as 
that is what will tell in the end. When round- 
ing a mark, the next leg being before the wind, 
or reaching, cut it as close as possible on all 
sides, and get your sails across the boat in a 
hurry. If it means a jibe of the mainsail, 
start to take in on the mainsheet before you 
get to the mark ; this will allow you to shave 
it closer than if you jibed at the last moment. 

When approaching a mark coming to 
windward, keep your eye on it and be sure 
not to overstand it, as this means a loss. Get 
your spinnaker ready on the last hitch to 
windward ; if the next leg is before the wind, 
and when rounding, you give her the main- 
sheet and get a knock-down when you fill 
away, be sure and see that the mainsail does 
not foul the flag. Then keep slightly to wind- 
ward of your course while setting the spin- 
naker so that you shall not be blanketed by 

89 



THE SMALL YACHT 

the stern boats. If on the other hand you 
happen to be one of the stern boats swing out 
to windward and bother the leader all you 
can. It will worry him if you do not actually 
cut his wind, and if you do happen to spoil it, 
unless he is a great deal faster, you will soon 
close in on him and have an excellent chance 
of getting past him. 



90 



J 



CHAPTER VIII 

ALLOWANCES FOR TIDE OR CURRENT 

SHOAL SPOTS 

IN a great many localities, especially on salt 
water, the tide or current runs strong 
enough to be carefully figured on in sail- 
ing a race. You should always know whether 
the tide is coming or going, and in what gen- 
eral direction it runs on various parts of the 
course. If the wind is light it may make a 
great difference to the boat if she is held 
slightly high of the course to offset the tide 
or current. You should also use judgment 
in rounding marks and know how the cur- 
rent runs past them, so that you shall not be 
set down on the marks and foul them, being 
unable to get clear at the last moment. 

In river and lake sailing there is usually a 
back eddy close to shore, or under certain 
points of land, and these favorable spots 

91 



THE SMALL YACHT 

should be worked, as a head current retards 
the progress of a boat very materially. I 
have had experience in river and lake sailing 
where two rivers meet; the current in one 
being very strong and yet twenty feet further 
off; in the other there is practically still 
water, the dividing line being marked by 
shoal water and a distinct difference in the 
color of the water, one being brown and the 
other green. Use one current in beating to 
windward and the other in returning before 
the wind. 

Many races are won by reason of the 
skipper knowing where the shoal spots lie 
and avoiding them, as the boat slows up in 
shoal water; also by his knowing how to 
work the shore with its eddies and favorable 
slants of wind, and where the current or 
tide will favor him the greatest when sailing 
in a certain direction. If you are drifting 
along over a finish line, as is often the case, 
going directly with the current, it sometimes 
is an excellent scheme to slightly turn your 

92 





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ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

boat across the current in order to bring the 
flat side of your fin or centerboard against the 
strength of push of the current, this offering 
more resistance than through the sharp front 
and rear edge of the fin. 

If you are uncertain about the direction 
of tide or current it is a good rule to keep 
sHghtly to windward of the course, having a 
little to come and go on at all times. 

In reaching across a current that is fast 
setting you to windward, keep well to leeward 
of your mark in order to sail a straight line. 
Remember that the general tendency of a 
man setting out to windward, sailing a boat 
on a reach, is to keep the bow of the boat on 
the mark, where in reality the boat is sailing 
high of her course going through an arc of a 
circle. 

To tell exactly how you are sailing get 
directly amidships and look along over your 
bow. 



93 



CHAPTER IX 

BEATING TO WINDWARD 

SAILING to windward or beating to 
windward is the one special condition 
of sailing that requires skill to get good 
results. 

The pressure of the sail driving ahead is 
very slight ; you are going as near dead against 
the wind as is possible, so the pressure against 
your boat of wind and water is greater than 
under any other conditions. Here skill in 
handling, a smooth surface, well setting sails, 
little windage, all count for more than in any 
other point of sailing. You must not trim 
the sails too flat or allow them to be off too 
far, as either extreme will kill the boat's 
windward qualities. Remember, also, not to 
trim your sails exactly like some other boat, 
as it will not necessarily work. Every boat 
needs to be trimmed and balanced to suit her- 

94 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

self, the sails or model being different in 
different boats. 

The peak of the mainsail must be well set 
up so the gaff shall not flow off at too great an 
angle and so lose the drive. By hoisting the 
peak you throw a nice bird's wing curve into 
the forward part of the sail, thus increasing 
the driving power. 

Always choose a comfortable position where 
you can watch your sails and boat. Keep her 
moving ahead at all costs; there is nothing 
gained by pointing her higher than she will 
comfortably go, and thereby lose headway. 
Keep the boat always on her feet and meet 
the knock-down puffs half way by luffing and 
slightly spilling the wind from the sails. It is 
a good idea to keep the mainsail slightly lift- 
ing or fluttering in by the throat, if you 
have enough wind to give a fair move. In a 
seaway it is usually better to give her slightly 
more of a full, in order to better carry your 
headway through the jump. 

To be sure of the best driving mainsail for 
95 



THE SMALL YACHT 

all conditions in windward work, it is neces- 
sary to have several sails. A very full one for 
light weather, with good lift and play to the 
boom. Have a fairly flat one for a breeze, so 
that you may get the benefit of the forA\^ard 
part to help keep the boat's head off when 
going to windward. This eases up on the 
rudder and the tendency to come up into the 
wind is less with the forward part drawing. 
The perfect balance of the yacht to windward 
is very essential to speed. The rudder should 
trail out directly astern and should be used 
simply to turn, and not to do the work that 
the sails should do, namely, keep her from 
coming up into the wind or running off to 
leeward. 



96 




Windward side, showing long straight sailing lines and port rudder 
Weather bilge-board hoisted 



i 




Note position of main boom for light weather work 




On a close reach at ^ood speed. Easy formed scow Sonder boat, 
choice for the American team of 19()(). A very fast boat in 
light weather. Note especially smooth wake 



First 



CHAPTER X 

REACHING 

REACHING, for the modern small 
racing boat, is the fastest point of 
sailing in most conditions. When 
running before the wind you cannot go faster 
than the wind is blowing; while in beating 
to windward the boat is laced down and does 
not have the free action that she shows when 
the sheets are well started and the sails are 
lifting, so getting all the benefit of the drive. 
Reaching may be either broad or close. By 
broad, I mean when the wind is coming over 
the weather side further aft than a-beam ; by 
close, I mean when the wind comes forward 
of the beam and you can still fetch your mark 
without going to windward. 

Reaching is a condition of sailing where 
model counts a good deal, although not 
nearly so much as when going to windward. 
7 97 



THE SMALL YACHT 

Any boat can reach, as there is nothing for 
the skipper to do except station his crew in the 
best possible positions and keep his sails just 
right with every inch of canvas drawling. If 
it is not blowing too hard, it is advisable not 
to cleat your sheets, but put a man on each 
one. Have him watch the sails and be sure 
that they are always full of wind. 

On a reaching start there is always bound 
to be a lot of luffing and bearing away to be 
done and the craft is never steady on her 
course. If the wind is very heavy and there 
is also a heavy sea running, the modern boat 
is very apt to yaw and twist and be very un- 
easy and hard on her helm, twisting and turn- 
ing on her narrow fin. The bow wave is 
usually very large and has a tendency to make 
the boat broach to. When she has a coamer 
under her stern quarter, pay her off slightly 
in order to let her run on the crest as far as 
possible, which she will do at great speed. Do 
not attempt to check every slight move or 
twist caused by the sea, as it is impossible, 

98 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

and the rudder will stop her far more, turn- 
ing from one side to the other, than though 
you let her alone. 

Of course, if there be a twist of any magni- 
tude, take it early and check her, but as she 
swings back into her course straighten the 
helm out slowly so as not to send her beyond 
her true course, and so make it necessary to 
put the helm hard down. 

In other words, feel your boat and help her ; 
do not retard her by unnecessary turning of 
the rudder. 



99 



CHAPTER XI 

RUNNING BEFORE THE WIND 

RUNNING before the wind is the point 
of sailing that is usually most monot- 
onous. As the boat is traveling with 
the wind, you cannot feel a draft and it is 
often very warm. Light sails are carried 
before the wind, such as spinnaker and bal- 
loon jib. The mainsail should be freed out 
until it touches the shrouds and can go no 
further. It is sometimes impossible to free 
it as far as this, if the wind is heavy, as the 
jaws of the gaff are apt to split on account of 
the gaff swinging well forward of the mast 
with the jaw prying against the mast and 
shrouds. 

The spinnaker is set on the opposite side 
to the mainsail, and, if the wind is dead astern, 
is guyed well aft; that is, the pole is set per- 
pendicular to the side of the boat, held by the 

100 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

guy attached to its outer end and cleated on 
the stern of the boat. The spinnaker sheet 
is carried around the mast and outside the 
leeward shroud and led aft. This sheet is 
either freed or hauled down, as the case may 
be, allowing the spinnaker to balloon up or 
flatten down. If allowed to flow forward the 
wind from the leech will spill into the balloon 
jib and thus you will get some little pull from 
that sail. If the wind is unsettled, hauling to 
the quarter and aft again, it is an excellent 
scheme to have a man on the spinnaker guy 
to let it out and take it in at a moment's notice, 
so that the sail will never be lifting but always 
a hard full. 

The boat before the wind is in an upright 
position and this often means a great bow 
wave is piling up under the long flat forward 
overhang and lifting the craft off her ordinary 
sailing lines. In this case, it is a good idea to 
carry a man w^ell forward in order to hold her 
head down and so keep her on her lines. In 
the ''V" shaped section craft, this is usually 

101 



THE SMALL YACHT 

wrong, as she cuts the water, throwing it to 
either side, and having the tendency to bury 
forward when running down hill on a sea. In 
this case keep your men well aft in order to 
keep her bow out and the deck clear of solid 
water forward. 

If you are sailing the long flat scow before 
the wind, keep your crew on the lee rail, in 
order to heel her as far as possible, especially 
in light weather, as when upright, the flat 
form is a great hindrance to speed for many 
reasons. 

It is also a good plan, if your mainsail, 
when hoisted high for windward work, shows 
wrinkles, to slack off the peak halliard a 
trifle, thus smoothing out the sail and getting 
thereby a more effective surface. 

If in a roll of a sea and in light weather 
the jib is slatting back and forth, knocking 
against the spinnaker and thus spoiling its 
wind, always lower the jib and get rid of it 
as it is doing much more harm than good. It 
is very essential that the spinnaker and main- 

102 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

sail shall not slacken any more than abso- 
lutely necessary. 

If the weight of the mainsheet is too great 
for the boom and sail to hold out, and the 
sheet drags in the water, place one of the crew 
on the boom, in by the mast, thus holding it 
in position, or else unwreathe your mainsheet, 
excepting one part, thus cutting out the weight 
of the rope. 



103 



CHAPTER XII 

WHEN TWO BOATS ARE CONVERGING 

ONE of the most common occurrences 
during a race, and perhaps one of the 
most important incidents, which calls 
for the nicest handling is when two boats are 
coming together, or converging, either on 
different tacks or on the same tack, or when 
one boat (the windward one) is not able to 
hold as high a course as the leeward one, al- 
though going through the water at the same 
rate of speed, or a little faster. Of course the 
right-of-way here plays an all-important part ; 
the craft with the starboard tack (both boats 
sailing to windward) has the right-of-way over 
the craft on the port tack. The question then 
arises — if boat ''A" (see diagram No. 2), 
holding the port tack, can get across boat 
^'B's'' bow, holding the starboard tack with 
right-of-way, if "A" can cross ^^B," "A" 

104 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

should do so by all means and tack immedi- 
ately to windward and ahead of ^'B," thereby 
forcing ^*B" to tack or sail ^ 

along with his wind badly 

cut up. ''B" on the other 
hand should swing about 
on the other tack when 
''A" swings to block him, 
thereby losing nothing. 

rr\ ^ .i Tf» ^UT 2. A about to 

lake another case, it cross B on the port 
"A," on the port tack, can- 
not cross ''B's" bow without 
'^^ being fouled, "A'' should tack 
under "'B's" bow just to lee- 
ward and ahead, thereby giving 
"B'' a dose of back wind that 
will force him to come about or 
lose distance. This latter trick 
jus^t't^ wMward should be executed when in ex- 
tTul S^'b^s actly the right position, because 
^^^* when tacking ''A'' loses head- 

way and ''B'' may slightly luff and then 
bear down on ^'A," finally covering him and 

105 




A' 




Cut 4. B swing- 
ing to port in or- 
der to get her wind 
clear. 




THE SMALL YACHT 

passing to windward, badly spoiling ''B's" 
wind and dropping him well astern before he 
can get his wind clear again. 
''B/' however, cannot drive 
^^A" off to leeward, 
if you are sailing un- 
der the rules of the 
leeward boat hav- 
ing the right-of-way 
when two boats are 
converging on the 
same tack for the reason of hold- 
ing a better wind, but can pass 
close to ''A" without ''A" being 
able to touch ''B." 

When two boats are sailing on 
a reach, "A'' catching ^^B," ^^B" 
can luff until '^ A'' has an overlap ; 
then ''B" must hold his course 
and should not change it, believ- 
ing that he holds the right-of-way, being the 
leeward boat. 

The rule used by some clubs is that the 
106 



Cut 5. A has 
tacked under 
B's lee bow, 
having been 
unable to 
cross B's bow, 
as B holds 
the starboard 
tack and right- 
of-way. A is 
now in an ex- 
cellent posi- 
tion to back- 
w^nd B and 
so force B to 
tack to port. 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

leeward boat shall have the right-of-way over 
the windward boat on account of holding a 
better wind, and being unable to tack when 
close aboard the other boat. The only chance 
then of not striking is to bear away. This is 
a much better rule. The other rule is that the 
windward boat has the right-of-way over the 
leeward, but has got to hold her course when 
passing another boat. 



107 



CHAPTER XIII 

TWO BOATS APPROACHING A MARK 

A GREAT many of the fouls and pro- 
tests that are handed into the Regatta 
Committee to decide are caused when 
two boats are approaching a mark, or actu- 
ally rounding it. Somebody had the right-of- 
way, and the question arises. Who was it ? 

This question in a race is usually a very 
important one, because the yacht that gets 
around first gains a very great advantage 
over her competitor, in that it is necessary 
for the other boat to pass her in order to beat 
her home. Passing a boat on a reach is an 
exceptionally difficult matter, if the boats are 
equally fast. To windward it is also difficult, 
as the first boat around can cover the other 
one. Before the wind, however, the second 
boat around the mark can cover the first, if 
she is close enough to take her wind. 

108 




Just after the start in close quarters. No. 24 in weather berth and in 
leadin<^ position. A good example of the 18-foot knockabouts 



^ 


, --y 


rv 



'"""ft^^^am^^SBSJ^gi^ .«k 



Start of Massachusetts Bay 18-foot knockabout class. First leg a broad 
reach, showing how boats spread out on a start of this sort 



im^ 







O 

J3 



o 



c 
o 

J3 



(LI 

a; 



c3 







ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

When two boats are coming to a mark for 
the purpose of rounding, on different tacks, 
the boat having the right-of-way on the star- 
board tack should make it as bad for the 
other as possible, forcing him to tack, thus 
carrying him past the mark, if he tacks under 
his bow, or else forcing him to go under his 
stern. 

If the boats are approaching a mark both 
on the starboard tack, the windward boat 
should be careful to sail on that tack far 
enough so as to be sure to easily bring the 
mark on the next tack, and stay close enough 
to the leeward boat so that she cannot tack to 
port and go under your stern with her wind 
clear. 

When two boats are coming to a mark, 
sailing before the wind with spinnaker set, 
then the stern boat should so figure as not to 
pass the first one too soon, and so lose the 
advantage of being the inside boat on the 
turn, but should hold back until the right 
moment and then forge ahead and abreast 

109 



THE SMALL YACHT 

of the other, on the inside, thereby cutting 
in on the mark and being the weather boat 
after the turn, with the other one to leeward 
and behind. Be sure to get the spinnaker off 
in time to have things snug when you round, 
especially if it is blowing hard, so that the 
crew can attend to the boat to windward, and 
get her going properly, without delay. 

When two boats are reaching for a mark, 
and the stern boat has an overlap of, say the 
bowsprit, the first boat has to give her room 
around the mark. Do not give more room 
than is necessary while you round slightly in 
the lead and to leeward, squeezing your boat 
as high as possible in order to backwind the 
one to windward and astern of you. This can 
very often be done and the stern boat will be 
forced to tack away from you. 

When you are approaching or rounding a 
mark, carefully figure out what certain moves 
will result in when once around. 



110 



CHAPTER XIV 

MANY BOATS APPROACHING A MARK FOR THE 
PURPOSE OF ROUNDING 

THERE are a thousand different com- 
binations which a fleet of from three 
to twelve boats could assume when 
rounding a mark well bunched. I will point 
out certain cases and explain these. 

Saying a fleet of four boats, as often hap- 
pens, is approaching a mark for the purpose 
of rounding, all going to windward on the star- 
board tack ; the leeward boat is ahead and each 
following boat overlaps the one nearest him to 
leeward ; the next leg is a beam or quartering 
run. Of course, the boat ''D,'' being farthest 
to windward, has the freest course and can 
sail through the water faster than the others ; 
she has the greatest distance to go, however, 
and cannot get around before '' A " (see 
diagram 6), ''D" having to sail on the out- 
Ill 



THE SMALL YACHT 



s"*-* 



/ 



side of the circle. ''A" having the right-of- 
way, the other boats have to give ''A" room 

to round the mark with- 
out crowding her on to 
it. ^'D" sees that after 
rounding she will be to 
leeward, and behind in 
an impossible position to 
do anything and, there- 
fore, must in some way 
get to weather of the 
other 
boats, 
after the 
round, 

not being far enough ahead 

to kill them by cutting their 

wind as they are approaching 

the mark. ^^D " continues in 

her position until well up to 

the mark, then slows up by 

easing her sheets, or luffing 

sharply, and bears off again 

112 




Cut 6. Approaching the 
windward mark, all over- 
lapping one another. 



% 



A 




Cut 7. D bear- 
ing away in an at- 
tempt to cut in on 
the turn as A, B,and 
C slightly luff each 
other out to wind- 
ward. 




ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

immediately when she can cross the sterns 

of "B" and "C,'' which she does, and with 

her increased speed off the 

wind puts her bowsprit just 

to leeward of 'A," between 

''A'' and the mark, thus 

making "A" give "D'' 

room at the mark to round cin 8. D cuts in to 

in {^f^(^ HinoraTTl S ^ weather position on the 

m. (pee aiagram o.; ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ 

"!>'' is then saiUng on J^The mli? ^^' ''''''^ 

the small arc of the circle 

and jibes with the others, being then in 

the weather position and 
abreast the others, if not 
ahead. (See diagram 9.) 
This same maneuver 
can be applied to a fleet 
running before the wind 
where the outside boat 

JZnfor\Tr:tt:t ^^ '^^ ^ ^ad position on 
fi*"^^!"^^- the round. She has been 

the weather boat all the way down the first 
leg before the wind, but has been unable 
8 113 




THE SMALL YACHT 

to gain any lead as her wind is taken the 
minute she forges ahead. (See diagram 10.) 
As ''A," the leeward boat, gets well down to 
the mark before she jibes, ''D" takes her 
spinnaker aboard, jibes her mainsail quickly, 
and with a rush crosses the sterns of "B" 



of 




Cut 10. Approaching the mark, before the 
wind. D in a bad position for the turn. 



and '^C' and, placing her bowsprit between 
''A" and the mark, forces her way into the 
weather position on the round. (See dia- 
gram 11.) This is made possible because 
''D" is able to run across the wind faster 
than before it, and is also helped by the 

114 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

delay of the other boats taking in their 
spinnakers and jibing their mainsails. ''B" 
and ''C" may try to follow suit, but it is too 
late, as '"D" has taken their wind and is to 



g 




Cut 11. D jibes mainsail to starboard be- 
fore the other boats and just before reaching 
the mark, reaches across their sterns for the 
inside position at the turn. 



windward and ahead. (See diagrams 12 and 
13.) The best thing for ^^B" and "C to 
do is to keep clear of the fleet by taking a 
large sweep around, especially if the next leg 
is a reach, thus getting their wind clear. If 
the leg is to windward, they are free to come 
about on the starboard tack when they wish, 
not being tangled up with the weather boats, 

115 



THE SMALL YACHT 

and having their wind clear, which is a great 
thing for windward work. 

When the fleet is running free, approach- 
ing a guide mark, which only means a slight 



cT 




Cut 12. All the boats 
have jibed and taken 
in spinnakers. D has 
gained the best position 
for the turn, being wind- 
ward boat and on the 
inside. 




Cut 13. A close reach, 
D to windward, C bearing 
away for the mark in order 
to get her wind clear of the 
other three boats. 



change in course, say from dead before the 
wind to a little more than wind on the 
quarter, but still free enough for spin- 
nakers (see diagram 14), ^'A" sees she 
cannot round ahead as she cannot get 
across the bows of "B," "C," and ^^D," 

116 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

so keeps well off the mark and does not 
mix up with the leaders, ''B," ''C/' and 
*'D/' who, on the second they round, 
begin a luffing match, going well to weather 




Cut 14. Approaching a guide 
mark before the wind. A in a bad 
position as they round and slightly 
change their course. 




Cut 15. B and C rounding, 
holding high of their course m 
order to keep their wind clear. 
A keeping well away to leeward 
and heading for the mark. 



of their course. (See diagrams 15 and 
16.) Their spinnakers not drawing well, 
"A'" should keep slightly to leeward so 

117 



THE SMALL YACHT 

to be sure to keep her round clear; then 
when ^'B," ^^C/' and ''D" square away, 
'^A" will find herself well to the front and 
in an excellent position, as she can sail 
slightly across the wind, being to leeward. 





'•''/»</" 




Cut 16. A luffing match between B, C, 
and D ; A keeping clear by bearing away to 
leeward. 



and make faster headway than '^B,'' ^^C," 
and ''D,'' as they will have to run dead 
before it to fetch their mark, and conse- 
quently slow up, bothering each other all 
the time. (See diagram 17.) 

One thing must be remembered, make the 
118 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

move that would land you ahead in the end, 
even if it is hard to do it in the beginning. 
This pays every time. 



ISLAND 




Destination 




ti 



Cut 17. B, C, and D bearing 
away for the mark. A cutting in 
ahead keeping close to the island 
and having her wind slightly over 
her quarter, thereby sailing faster 
tlirough the water and also a shorter 
distance to the mark. 



119 



CHAPTER XV 

THE TEAM RACE 

YACHT racing to-day is divided mainly 
into three kinds of races — the Match 
Race, Team Race, and Fleet Race. 
The Fleet Race is where each boat is racing 
for herself, this being the most common kind, 
but for scientific calculating and sport theTeam 
Race leads, and if the Match Race be close, it 
should have second position in importance. 

I will take the Team Race first. This race 
consists of from two boats on a side upwards 
to any number, matched against each other, 
the scoring being done usually by the per- 
centage table, or by allowing a certain sum 
for a first, second, third, and fourth place, 
and so on. I think the table preferable. Take, 
for instance, six boats, three on a Team. First 
place would be worth 100, second 83.3, third 
66.7, fourth 50, fifth 33.3, sixth 16.7. 

120 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

There are these various combinations of po- 
sitions that will win. First place and second 
will win even if the third boat does not finish 
and gets zero. First, third, and sixth places 
will win over second, fourth, and fifth, and so 
on; the combinations of the various posi- 
tions at the finish making the race doubly 
interesting as the leaders can help their Team 
mates by various maneuvers, blanketing, etc. 

I will give two or three actual instances 
where maneuver and skill helped to win. In 
a series of races that took place three years 
ago, with three boats on a side, there happened 
to be one centerboarder on one of the teams 
(call it team "^A," and call the other team 
''B ") that was greatly superior to her 
team mates and also to the boats comprising 
team '' B, ' ' in a good breeze. The race was a 
triangle twice around, distance 12 knots. At 
the end of the first round she was well ahead 
of the fleet, with the other team in second, 
third, and fourth positions, giving them, if 
they could hold these positions, the race on 

121 



THE SMALL YACHT 

percentage. After rounding the home mark, 
instead of starting and sailing as fast as pos- 
sible to the weather mark on the second 
round, she doubled on her course and sailed 
back to meet the first boat in the other fleet 
(team ''B"). When she reached the leader 
of team ''B " she tacked to windward of her 
and completely spoiled her wind, slowing her 
up tremendously. Meanwhile the other boats 
in team ''B'' caught up with the leaders and 
became entangled with each other and the 
leader in team ^^A.'' While this was going 
on, team ''A'' boats in the rear picked up to 
the leaders and the entire fleet went around 
the mark in a bunch. Then the center- 
boarder, first mentioned in team ^"A," cov- 
ered the leader in team ^'B,'' going to 
windward, staying close aboard her, and 
spoiling the "B" boat completely. Mean- 
while the other team ^^A" boats had gone 
into first and fourth positions. Seeing this, 
the centerboarder left the old leader of team 
"B'' and started to catch and cover the new 

122 



i 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

leader of team ''B/' then sailing second. 
This she accomplished, and the boats in 
team ''A'' rounded in first, second, and 
sixth positions, holding these positions to 
the finish, and thus scoring a win. 

Another very interesting incident which took 
place during another series of races between 
different clubs was when on the run home, 
before the wind with spinnakers set (calling 
the boats teams ''A" and ''B," and the 
Boats X, Y, and Z in team ^'A," and 1, 2, 
and 3 in team ''B") team ''A" was in 
first, third, and sixth positions; team ''B'' 
in second, fourth, and fifth places, great dis- 
tances separating each boat. Boat X, the 
leader of the fleet and in team ^'A,'' finished. 
Boat 1, in second place in the fleet and lead- 
ing team ^^B," on seeing Boat X finish, took 
in her spinnaker a mile from the line, and 
waited for Boat Y, which was sailing in third 
place, being second boat in team ''A." 
When they came together Boat 1 crossed 
Boat Y's stern and set her spinnaker, taking 

123 



THE SMALL YACHT 

all her wind and completely killing her, and 
at the same time 1 threw a bucket over- 
board, attached to a long rope, in turn killing 
her own headway ; thus she held Y and her- 
self back. No. 2 in team ''B" soon picked 
up and passed the pair, going into second 
position, then 1 pulled in her bucket and let 
Y go, only covering her at intervals, so she 
should not get away again. When close to 
the line 1 covered Y and passed her to wind- 
ward, intending to get the jump and shoot 
by into third place, thereby getting a second, 
third, and fifth, and so winning the race. It 
was a nicely thought out scheme, but unfor- 
tunately for team ''B," Y of team ''A" got 
a heavy sea under her stern, and in a hard 
puff ran the last 200 feet on the crest of a 
sea, passing both boats in team ''B" and 
actually finishing second, so giving the race 
to team "A.'' 

There are various other tricks and combi- 
nations, when properly executed, that will 
change the entire outcome, such as carrying 

124 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

a fast boat of the other team out into the 
worst water and wind; blocking her regard- 
less of what happens to yourself ; working the 
start so that each one of the other team shall 
be covered by your team ; tacking at the right 
time to spoil the other boats; leaving your 
position after rounding marks to spoil the 
leaders of the other team; sailing to help 
your team mates by keeping astern, espe- 
cially if faster than the others, in order to 
block the leaders of the other team, but 
above all, have the winning combinations 
worked out beforehand and written on the 
deck where you can always find them. Also, 
get together the night before the race and 
scheme out your plan of attack, considering 
all possible combinations. 



125 



CHAPTER XVI 

THE MATCH RACE 

THE Match Race is the type of race 
now in use for the America's Cup, 
where there is only one boat on a 
side, saiUng a series of three out of five races 
for a win. 

This kind of racing brings out all the skill 
in handling, and errors are easily seen when 
made, as there is no other boat to help along, 
as in the Team Race, and there is only one 
boat to defeat and look out for. As the say- 
ing goes, get between your competitor and 
the mark, and stay there if you can, and if 
you can do this you will win. 

I will tell about a certain race that actually 
took place between two 21-foot raceabouts, 
best three out of five for a large stake. We 
will call the boats ^^A" and ^^B." ^'A'' was 
faster in light weather, "'B'' in moderate 

126 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

weather, and it was a close match in a heavy 
breeze. 

The first race was sailed in a moderate 
wind, ''B's" weather, and the incident that 
I wish to recall happened in that race. The 
course was to windward first, then a reach 
and a run with spinnakers home. ''A" was 
first at the windward mark, ''B" being one 
minute and thirty seconds astern. On the 
second leg ''B" cut ''A's" lead down to 
twenty seconds and ''B'' could outrun ''A'' 
dead before the wind. When ''A'' rounded it 
was obvious that her wind would be spoiled 
by ^^B,'' so she luffed well out to weather, and 
when ''B" rounded she followed suit. After 
ten minutes sailing it was only a matter of 
a few minutes more before ^^B'' would pass 
^'A.'' ^^A," however, kept her course well 
high of the home mark, and when ^"B" 
passed her to windward ''A'' quickly luffed 
up past ''B's" stern. This forced ''B" to 
luff and kept her from bearing away toward 
the home mark. ''A" would luff across ''B" 

127 



THE SMALL YACHT 

then try and go through her lee, all the time 
keeping "'B" from heading off toward the 
finish line, for if she had ''A" would have 
covered her and passed her. ''A'' kept up 
these tactics until they were both past the 
finish line, but a mile to one side of it. Then 
the right time had come. "A" attempted 
to run past "'B" to leeward, quickly jibed 
her mainsail and pushed her spinnaker to 
starboard and headed for the line. '^B" 
seeing this followed suit, but, of course, was 
directly under ''A's" lee and so could do 
nothing. ^"A" passed her and pulled out a 
couple of lengths lead ; ''B " pulled up on the 
wind and crossed ''A's" wake, attempting 
to luff out on ''A's" weather quarter. ''A'' 
would not allow this and held again well to 
windward of the finish line, and the wind 
being about abeam, ^^B'' could not pass 
*^A'' close to her on account of ''A's'' back- 
wind, and to pass "'A" would necessitate 
sailing well to windward on a large arc of a 
circle. ^^A" could then hold her own as she 

128 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

sailed on the small arc of a circle from where 
she had jibed to the finish line, forcing ''B" 
to sail a larger arc in order to pass her, and 
consequently to sail a much longer distance. 
''A" crossed the line five seconds ahead of 
''B" simply because she had out-maneuvered 
"B," getting to the point she wanted when 
dead before the wind. This made ''B" sail 
the longest distance home, and ''B's" slight 
extra speed could not make up for this. 

I consider this incident of extraordinary 
interest, because it is a good example of what 
can be done in a Match Race in the way of 
judgment and handling. (See diagram 18.) 



129 




^ 



B A Outer Mark 

Cut 18. A match race between two boats. A rounds outer mark 
ahead; B catches and passes a short time after rounding outer mark. 
They block each other before the wind. A jibes abreast the finish line and 
forces B to sail longest distance home, thereby winning. 




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T3 





CHAPTER XVII 

THE FLEET RACE 

THE Fleet Race is the common type of 
race for a number of boats, each one 
for himself. There is possibly some 
luck in the finishes of the Fleet Race, as the 
crack boat may get away badly at the start, 
being covered by a quantity of the slower 
boats, and so being unable to get clear of the 
slow ones until it is too late to win; one of 
the faster boats by that time having worked 
out quite a safe lead. This is often the case, 
and in many respects the race is, for this 
reason, not so satisfactory. 

As I mentioned in one of my earlier chap- 
ters, it is impossible for one boat to cover 
both sections; when in going to windward 
part go one way and part another hunting for 
flukes. If luck is against the best boat she 
will lose through no fault of her own, whereas 

131 



THE SMALL YACHT 

in the Match Race and Team Race you can 
stay with your competitors. This view is 
taken, of course, by the owner of the best boat 
in a Fleet Race, and the man with the slower 
boat wants to win some of the time, even if he 
does get a little lift by the wind favoring him. 
Most of the general points that are possible 
to give in a work of this sort I have mentioned 
in previous chapters, so there is no use in 
speaking of them again here. I will say, 
however, that good judgment and careful 
attention to winds and tides will win in the 
long run over the man who is careless and 
by luck has fallen into first place now and 
then. 



132 



CHAPTER XVIII 

SETTING AND TAKING IN LIGHT SAILS 

WHEN the setting and taking in of 
light sails is done or handled in a 
clever, quick way, it is a matter of 
great satisfaction to the captain and crew, 
and sometimes is worth minutes to all con- 
cerned. 

Say, for instance, the spinnaker is set in- 
stantly on rounding, the next boat is a few 
feet astern and is slow in getting her kite set ; 
with the added sail you quickly draw away, 
as a spinnaker is a tremendous help off the 
wind. You can sometimes establish a lead 
that will be difficult to overcome. This is not 
so true of the balloon jib, as on a reach it 
simply takes the place of the working sail and 
the added area is not tremendous. 

It is always a good idea to get your light sails 
out of their bags and neatly coiled up below 

133 



THE SMALL YACHT 

with the head up so that when you need them 
they are ready and clear for you without 
delay. In the smaller classes where the spin- 
naker booms are under fifteen feet long, it is 
unnecessary to have your sail set up in stops 
for hoisting and breaking out, as usually the 
thread is too strong, there is a twist in the sail, 
or something else happens to delay getting 
it spread to the wind ; whereas if you hoist it 
flying, even if there is a twist in it, it will free 
itself, and there is at least some of the sail 
drawing from the start. 

When setting the spinnaker, if stopped up 
the sail is hoisted, hooked on to the end of the 
boom, boom pushed out and hauled aft by 
the guy, cleated, and then broken out. If the 
spinnaker is set flying, hoist the sail more or 
less under the lee of the mainsail, cleat hal- 
liard, snap the tack on to the boom end, push 
your pole out without trimming the sheet, get 
it aft, and then trim the sheet. Be sure the 
pole is well up the mast so that the outer end 
shall point slightly downward. This will pre- 

134 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

vent the sail skying upward when it first fills 
away. 

The best method of taking the sail in, 
when the sail and sheet are allowed to go 
forward of the head stay, is to let go the guy 
completely, the sail coming forward, take 
pole off mast, unhook tack from end of pole 
and let it go; the sail then released goes in 
under the lee of the other sails and is lowered 
away and hauled in simultaneously by the 
sheet under the jib, and is easily smothered. 

To take in the balloon jib, having already 
set the working sail to windward of it, start 
the halliard, slightly unhook the tack from 
the stem and let it go, then lower away and 
haul sail in by the sheet to leeward. 

If the spinnaker cannot be carried forward 
of the headstay (and a great many rules re- 
strict this) let go your spinnaker guy, taking 
the pole off the mast at the same time, unhook 
tack off end of pole and lower away, being 
careful not to get the sail caught in the jib 
snap hooks when lowering, and thus neces- 

135 



THE SMALL YACHT 

sitate lowering the jib to free it. Be sure to 
smother the sail with your arms and legs, so 
it shall not get overboard. There are many 
patent devices for setting and taking in the 
light sails, but I have found by experience 
that the best way in general is the manner 
here outlined. 



136 



CHAPTER XIX 

REEFING 

REEFING during a race, except for a 
squall, is not a possible thing to do 
among the modern boats and win. 
If you attempt to reef, somebody else will 
lug their sail, and you cannot make up for 
lost time unless it blows a hurricane and your 
opponents are completely overpowered. There 
are, however, many kinds of so-called patent 
reefs whereby pulling a line on either side of 
the boom, with long reef points attached to 
it, you can reef your sail. Then there is the 
roller boom that revolves, and the sail is 
rolled up on it to any extent you wish. 
I have seen all the various schemes in 
action and have tried out a great many, 
but the drawbacks and disadvantages are 
far in excess of any good you may derive 
from their use. Ordinary stops, or eyes, 

137 



THE SMALL YACHT 

and lace lines are better than anything yet 
discovered. 

The reef should always be tied down be- 
fore starting, remembering that it is much 
easier to shake out than tie in. 

The quickest reef to shake out is the reef 
tied down with a lace line which goes under 
the sail on the boom, and through an eye in 
the sail round and round, the reef earings, of 
course, being of the ordinary sort. To shake 
out a reef of this sort, take a knife and cut the 
lace-line in two or three places along the 
boom, thereby freeing the entire sail in be- 
tween its outer points; this being done, cut 
the earings on each end and hoist away on 
your sail. This entire work can be done in 
thirty seconds and the boat kept going along, 
practically losing nothing, whereas if the sail 
is tied down with the ordinary points it 
means that every point must be untied, and 
if you happen to find a square knot among 
them, it means cutting the point. 



138 



CHAPTER XX 

ACCIDENTS TO SAILS, SPARS, RIGGING, 
OR CREW 

THE accidents that happen to the 
racing boat should be few, if the 
boat is properly tuned up and every- 
thing tested out thoroughly and replaced 
when worn. However, no matter how care- 
ful a person may be, accidents are sure to 
happen once in awhile. If you tear a sail, say 
the mainsail, by having one of the reef points 
catch, keep on if you are leading until the sail 
goes ; the chances are that it will not do any- 
thing more than worry you. If you tear a 
spinnaker all to pieces on the first round of 
a course, set another. Here the carrying of 
a second sail is invaluable. 

If you lose a mast, there is nothing for it 
but to quit ; also a boom or gaff. But 
two spinnaker poles should be carried in 

139 



THE SMALL YACHT 

important races, as they are very apt to be 
broken, being small and thrown around a 
great deal. 

The rigging, if it is not a main shroud, or 
bobstay, can usually be repaired. For in- 
stance, if your headstay goes, and your mast 
still stands, take a piece of the anchor cable 
and tie to the wirestay with a square knot, 
then with one of your preventers, or extra 
halliards, set the mast forward and tie it to 
the stem or bowsprit. If this cannot be done, 
lead forward one of the halliards, both ends 
being tied down to the stem. 

If you lose a jib or peak halliard, use the 
balloon jib halliard, or spinnaker halliard, if 
there is any chance of their standing the 
strain. Always carry extra blocks and tackles 
to replace anything of this sort. 

If a main shroud goes, tack your boat im- 
mediately so as to bring the strain on the 
other; this will give you a chance to fix up 
the parted one. Tie a loop, if you can reach 
the upper broken end, and hook in a watch 

140 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

tackle, hooking the other end into the chain 
plate, and set up. 

If you lose a peak halliard block, set up on 
another halliard, and trust to luck the other 
block will carry the strain. If a throat hal- 
liard goes, hook in the spinnaker halliard and 
hoist away. Do not set up a single part too 
taut. If you break a tiller, and have not an 
oar on board to steer with, while you are 
mending it take out one of the floor boards, 
and if it is long enough, steer over the lee 
side with it; if it is short, lash it to your 
spinnaker boom jaws and steer with the pole. 

If you lose a bowsprit, and have an eye on 
the stem head, hook your headstay in there 
temporarily, or on the bitts. If you have 
neither of these devices, pass a loop well down 
over the forward overhang, bringing the ends 
together at the center of the deck and hitch 
your headstay there. There are, of course, 
many other makeshift devices. 

If one of your crew falls overboard, throw 
him a life-preserver, or whatever there is 

141 



THE SMALL YACHT 

within reach that will be of any use. Then 
tack and pick him up. Do not trust to some- 
body else to get him, no matter how good a 
swimmer he may be ; get him aboard as soon 
as possible, as a life is of much more value 
than a win. 

In case a squall comes up, watch the boats 
to windward of you and see how they are 
faring in it; have your halliards ready, so 
that you can lower away at the last moment. 
After you have felt it, and seen the magnitude 
of it, get your sails on her again if possible. 
Have your compass handy, so that in the rain 
and mist you will not lose your direction. 



142 



i 



CHAPTER XXI 

POSITIONS OF CREW DURING RACE 

THE positions of the crew during the 
race is of no little importance. They 
should be stationed so that they can 
handle their respective sheets without mov- 
ing about and should also be able to utilize 
their strength to the best possible advantage. 
Their positions in the cockpit, and on the 
windward and leeward rail, should be known, 
and, in ordinary conditions, the center of their 
weight should be just about over the center of 
buoyancy of the hull of the boat. If the 
wave under the bow is too great and lifts her 
head too much, shift your crew slightly for- 
ward to counterbalance this tendency. A 
good arrangement for three men is, one for- 
ward of the helmsman, handling both jib- 
sheets, and one aft, handling mainsheet and 
one preventer, the skipper taking the other. 

143 



THE SMALL YACHT 

If the skipper is on the windward rail, he 
should kneel down, not lie down, as then 
he could see nothing and would be in an un- 
comfortable position. The jibsheet-man just 
forward can lie down and out, and if the main- 
sheet-man just aft is not playing the main- 
sheet, he can lie down; otherwise have him 
sit up in a strong position, feet or knees braced 
against the coaming so as to be able to pull. 
In heavy conditions the position of the main- 
sail is of a great deal more importance than 
the windage of the crew. The jibsheet-man 
can lead his leeward sheet to windward and 
cleat it there ; and vice versa, so he does not 
move off the rail until the boat tacks, in 
order to slack his jib, he also hauls it in from 
the weather rail. If the helmsman cannot 
comfortably reach his tiller from the weather 
rail, have a luffing stick made, consisting of a 
short, stout stick, say two feet long, so that he 
can hold it comfortably, with a leather strap 
to slip over the tiller head and so connect at 
right angles. This arrangement will allow 

144 




Exaggerated type of the narrow flat Sonder boat, showing position 

of crew on lee rail in order to heel boat to proper 

sailing angle in light weather 




A flat formed, low ended Sonder Class boat, showing lifting tendency 
of bow wave even in very Ugh*: weather 




Going to windward in light weather. Weather boat running up on 
sea and blocking leeward one 




Going to windward. Note correct position of man on weather rail 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

him to sit well out to weather where his 
weight will tell. 

In a long, flat scow the crew need not bunch 
up in the center of the boat, but can string 
along on the rail, the boat being waterborne 
for such a great distance it will come easier on 
the construction to spread out the weight as 
much as possible. This will also give plenty 
of room for handling, and the crew will not 
be so apt to get in each other's way when 
tacking. It is impossible to set any hard and 
fast rule for positions of the crew, as boats 
differ in their weights; the best way is for 
each man to try his boat, changing the crew 
at various intervals. 

There is one thing, however, of great im- 
portance, that is, that everybody shall remain 
just as quiet and still as possible, as the least 
movement retards the sensitive racer's speed 
tremendously. 



10 145 



CHAPTER XXII 

COMPASS COURSES 

THERE is not a great deal to be said 
in regard to compass courses for 
small racing boats, as generally the 
races are sailed on inside courses and the 
marks can be seen when you have approached 
within a mile of them. It nevertheless is im- 
portant to always carry a chart and compass, 
as it is impossible to tell when they might be 
of the greatest use to you in winning the race. 
If, for instance, you see a fog shutting in, get 
your direction by compass, and also the gen- 
eral direction of the wind, and if there are any 
marks between you and the turning buoy, 
pick them up one by one, using them as guide 
marks. This will insure your correct direc- 
tion. Be careful in using a compass that 
there is no anchor or any amount of metal 
under the cockpit floor, as this will throw 

146 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

your compass out of true. If you are going 
to windward, sail your boat by your watch, 
say five to ten minutes on one tack, and the 
same length of time on the other, making 
short hitches. Then you cannot be far out, 
no matter what happens. 

If the wind is very light the tendency of 
many skippers sailing in a fog is to allow the 
boat to fall off and off, not having kept an 
eye on the compass and getting completely 
turned around by the fog. It is an excellent 
thing to have all courses laid out on the cir- 
cular or chart with the compass directions 
written in, then there will be no delay in 
plotting them. 



147 



CHAPTER XXIII 

TYPES OF SMALL RACING YACHTS IN AMERICA 

USUALLY the type of the small racing 
yacht is directly dependent on the 
locality in which she is to be used. 
For instance, deep water allows either the 
keel or centerboard ; shoals, bays, rivers, and 
lakes, especially of the smaller size, usually 
mean a shoal centerboard. In the eastern part 
of the country to-day the so-called knock- 
about, either keel or centerboard, but with 
many hundred pounds of lead placed outside 
for ballast, is the type most used. There are 
many restricted classes of this type — of from 
ten to forty boats, scattered along the coast. 
In the western part of the country, especially 
on large lakes, where for the last few years 
small racing fleets have grown with great 
rapidity, the low-sided, flat scow is used 
almost entirely. When the restrictions are 

148 




21-foot water line unrestricted racing scow, 50 feet over all, 1900 feet of 

sail in mainsail and jib. Built on steel truss. About the 

limit that this type can go and still hold together 




Three hulled boat built on wire trusses on 21-foot water line with iOOO 

square feet of sail. She was impossible to handle in anything 

other than very light weather, having no ballast 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

special, the class built under these is named for 
them, but usually the class name is the type 
and water-line length. They are as follows : 

15' knockabouts 
18' 
21' 

21' raceabouts (600 sq. ft. sail) 
22' cabin class (Massachusetts Bay) 
25' knockabouts 

25' cabin class (Massachusetts Bay) 
21' " '* (Great Lakes) 

21' Quincy Cup boats (unrestricted, except water-line 
length) 
Seawanhaka Cup Class (International, about 27' 
water-line) 
18' class scows (Western Lakes) 
20' " " (Western Lakes) 

Special International Sonder Class 
"Q" Class under universal rule, used only on the 
Atlantic seaboard, between New York and 
Boston. 

There are, beside the above-named classes, 
many local classes not so well known, such 
as several one-design 30-foot classes of keel 
boats, etc. 

149 



CHAPTER XXIV 

SALT VS. FRESH WATER 

IT is necessary in practically all cases to 
use the water for sailing that is nearest 
your home, if of any magnitude, and be 
very thankful to have that, as there are many 
men very fond of sailing that for some reason 
or other can never take part in the sport. 

The difference in conditions between salt 
and fresh is very great, and usually a very 
different type of boat is needed to compete 
successfully in either one. In the Western 
Lakes, Great Lakes, and St. Lawrence River, 
the wind is apt to blow very hard, and con- 
sequently kicks up a short choppy sea that is 
difficult to handle. It is also a very puffy 
wind and the most successful boats are usu- 
ally sailed with low rigs in comparison to those 
used on salt water. The inland lakes and 
rivers are very apt to be shoal and a center- 

150 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

board boat becomes a necessity for pleasure as 
well as racing. This is not true of the Great 
Lakes, as there is plenty of water almost 
everywhere, and the deep keel, salt water 
boat is used almost entirely. Power in the 
beam and ballast, either in the centerboard or 
keel boats, is of vast importance, because the 
winds that blow over the fresh w^aters in 
America are usually very strong. This is 
generally not so on the salt water, where a 
high rig and an easy moving hull are essen- 
tial in the racing boat, the sea being long and 
rolling and the winds apt to be aloft. One 
advantage the fresh water sailors have over 
salt, especially in certain localities, is that by 
dipping a cup overboard you can quench 
your thirst, and the old salt saying of — 
"'Water, water, everywhere, and not a drop 
to drink," does not stand. When seeing this 
done for the first few times it strikes the salt 
water man as very amusing. 

I consider fresh water sailing in most cases, 
more difficult than salt, especially if you do 

151 



THE SMALL YACHT 

not know your course, as the currents and 
puffs of wind come from almost any direction, 
for no perceptible reason. You may be sail- 
ing along with a twelve-mile breeze, and with- 
out any warning a forty-mile- an-hour wind 
will spring up and blow for ten minutes or so, 
then drop to a very light air again, there being 
at all times a perfectly clear sky. The reason 
for this is, I suppose, the topographical lay 
of the surrounding country and the tempera- 
ture of the water, it usually being very much 
warmer than the salt, on account of its shal- 
lowness. The salt water, on the other hand, 
usually has a steady wind blowing after ten 
o'clock in the morning. The early morning 
breeze is very variable; and as the morning 
advances and the land heats up, the sea 
breeze and prevailing wind for the day comes 
in. Undoubtedly the salt water has a fresh- 
ness and life about it that the fresh water 
never seems to have, and this helps to make 
it very attractive. In my opinion fresh water 
sailing cannot compare with salt. 

152 



CHAPTER XXV 

NECESSITY OF EXPERT JUDGES AND TIMERS 

THE necessity of having for officials in 
yacht races the best possible men 
procurable cannot be too strongly 
impressed upon the racing yacht clubs. 
There are many cases in which a great deal 
has depended on one race, and for some 
reason or other the officials were either in- 
capable or were making too much of an out- 
ing of the race, thus forgetting their first 
duties, which are to see that the rules under 
which the race is sailed are lived up to and 
that no boat is pocketed and beaten unfairly. 
This sort of thing does not happen among the 
best clubs, but if the smaller ones intend to 
give races, and they are allowed to count for a 
championship series, then the club should get 
men who are competent to run the race prop- 
erly, and leave the other sort of fun out until 

153 



THE SMALL YACHT 

after it is over. The officials should not be 
''land lubbers" and '"piazza yachtsmen/' but 
men who have been through it themselves, 
being able to give the right direction to start- 
ing and finish lines ; get the classes away prop- 
erly and at right intervals, and generally un- 
derstand what they are doing. This, I am 
sorry to say, is sometimes overlooked and 
causes a great deal of discontent among the 
competitors, the consequences being that 
the next year the races given by that club are 
a great fizzle, as few skippers care to sail 
under such conditions. 

The officials should remember that they 
are there to run a race and help the boats as 
much as possible, not to irritate and be dis- 
agreeable to the skippers and crews. 

There are many cases of this sort to-day 
that have meant the winning or losing of a 
championship on account of poor officials. 



154 



CHAPTER XXVI 

INTERNATIONAL SMALL YACHT RACING 

INTERNATIONAL small yacht racing 
should be encouraged in every way, as it 
is by far the most satisfactory race to win, 
on account of its international character. 

Of course the America's Cup is the ''Blue 
Ribbon" of the world, standing alone for the 
greatest speed in yachts not over ninety feet 
water-line. Second to the America's Cup is 
the Seawanhaka International Challenge 
Cup, donated by the Seawanhaka-Corinthian 
of New York, U. S. A., in 1894, for the pur- 
pose of bringing together in friendly competi- 
tion yachts of small size representing the 
various countries. This Cup was successfully 
defended by a Canadian Club, the Royal St. 
Lawrence Y. C. of Dorval, Canada, for nine 
years, truly a remarkable performance, espe- 
cially as it was challenged for by the greatest 

155 



THE SMALL YACHT 

small yacht racing clubs in America. It was 
finally won by the Manchester Y. C. of 
Manchester, Massachusetts, U. S. A., in 1905, 
in three straight races, the challenging yacht 
''Manchester" breaking all records for the 
course on Lake St. Louis, Canada, and sail- 
ing as fast as fifteen knots across the wind. 
This was a remarkable performance for a boat 
carrying only five hundred square feet of sail. 

This class of Seawanhaka boats, so called, 
are the fastest boats in the world for the sail 
area. Thus the Seawanhaka Cup stands for 
the greatest speed in small boats. 

Another International Challenge Cup is 
the Canada's Cup, raced for between America 
and Canada on the Great Lakes. 

The restrictions under which these boats 
were built have been changed from year to 
year, and a sharp ended thirty-footer with a 
moderate rig has been the usual type. 

In 1906 the first International small boat 
series of races for the Roosevelt Cup was 
sailed between Germany and America, off 

156 



^:**-W •'!!'tz^j^ 'jklf > mS v^ &^ 




•^ 1 



c 
o 












03 




i 



i 



German team in American waters in 1906 




During one of the International races with Germany in 1906. The three 
American boats in the background leading 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

Marblehead, Massachusetts, U. S. A., and 
again in 1907 a series was sailed between the 
same countries off Kiel, Germany, for the 
Emperor William Cup, and still again in 
1909 another series will be sailed between 
the representatives of the same countries off 
Marblehead for the President Taft Cup. 

Another series is that with Spain, the first 
contest taking place at San Sebastian in 1907, 
and a return contest will be sailed at Marble- 
head in 1910. 



157 



CHAPTER XXVII 

THE COST AND EXPENSE ACCOUNT OF THE 
RACING YACHTS 

A PERSON cannot expect to race a 
yacht successfully unless he is will- 
ing to haul her out of water once a 
week for a polish, put on at least two new 
mainsails a season, and keep the boat in the 
best possible repair. To do this costs a good 
deal of money, but if one man does it, he has 
the advantage of the person who does not. 
Racing is expensive, and if a person goes into 
it he must see his way clear to do everything 
that is necessary. It costs somewhere be- 
tween fifteen and thirty dollars to have a boat 
of the smaller class hauled out and potleaded. 
Then there are also incidental expenses, new 
running rigging, broken spars to replace, 
boat varnished, painted, or polished, etc. 
A suit of the best seven ounce sails, 550 
158 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

square feet, and with a No. 2 jib and spin- 
naker, covers, bags, stops, etc., costs between 
one hundred and forty and two hundred 
dollars, but this is figuring on the best pro- 
curable. A thirty-foot hollow mast costs forty 
dollars. 

The first cost of a fully equipped raceabout 
is between $1400 and $2000, and an eighteen- 
foot knockabout, M. Y. R. A., costs between 
$850 and $1400. A fifteen-footer costs be- 
tween $500 and $800, a Seawanhaka boat 
between $1000 and $2500, a twenty-one- 
foot cabin boat about $1800, a twenty-two- 
foot cabin boat about $2200, a Sonder Class 
boat $2000, and so on. 

The first cost or contract price depends 
upon the builder you go to, and also the time 
of year you build, the early fall being the least 
expensive time, and the late spring the most 
costly, because every builder has a lot of work 
on hand in the spring. It is always better, if 
you have made up your mind to build, to get 
started early in the fall. 

159 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

LAYING UP FOR THE WINTER SEASON 

WHEN hauling your boat out in the 
fall for winter storage, decide on the 
yard you will go to, and then get a 
figure from the owners of the yard for hauling 
out, covering with canvas, or putting in a 
shed, and launching again in the spring. If 
you know when you haul out, what painting, 
rigging, etc., you will want done in the spring, 
get a figure for that also. Then, when you 
know about what it will cost you, add on 
about twenty per cent of your figure for inci- 
dentals, as the spring bill is always larger 
than expected. 

When the boat is stripped, see that the 
spars are properly hung so they will not spring 
or warp; see that the sails are put away 
thoroughly dry in bags and placed where the 
mice cannot get at them. Have the rigging 

160 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

neatly coiled and labeled, and any metal work 
well greased. Have an augur hole bored 
through the garboard streak in order to 
properly drain the hull. Have the boat put 
in the shade if possible, and if she is covered 
with canvas have it nailed down to her sides 
thoroughly. Do not close her up, but have 
all doors open inside and out, also hatches 
removed. 

If the varnish and deck paint is well worn, 
it is an excellent scheme to have it touched 
up, as the craft is then better able to stand a 
hard winter. 

Care in laying up means an easier job in 
the spring, and is a saving of money in the 
end. 



11 161 



CHAPTER XXIX 

AMATEURS AND PROFESSIONALS 

THE difference between an amateur 
and professional is that the amateur 
has not been paid for sailing or 
handling a boat, whereas the professional 
has. 

Professionalism is the great ban to all 
sports, and in most instances it kills it, yacht 
racing as much as any other. I speak of the 
smaller classes. A boy under twenty years of 
age, with say three or four years' experi- 
ence, does not want to race against a profes- 
sional of say thirty-five, who has sailed for 
twenty years, and knows all about it. He may 
keep at it for awhile, but in the end, unless 
the amateur is a very good sailor, it will kill 
the sport. 

A good amateur, however, is apt to be 
better than a good professional; for many 

162 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDEING 

reasons he will do better, he has a better 
nerve, enjoys the sport keenly, and it also is 
a great feather in his cap if he wins against 
some good professional. 

I think it is a step in the right direction 
when a club bars professionals from steering 
races in the small classes. Half the pleas- 
ure in racing is to race against a crowd of 
men you know and like, so you can talk it 
over with them afterwards. 

The racing clubs should never allow an 
owner to turn his boat over to a man who is 
really a professional, but sails as an amateur 
with a paid crew, to race her for him, he stay- 
ing ashore and his boat winning the champion- 
ship. This sort of business is done, and 
should be stopped by the club giving the 
races. 



163 



CHAPTER XXX 

THE MAGNITUDE OF RACING IN AMERICA 

PERHiVPS America, especially the United 
States, gives a greater chance for yacht 
racing than any other country in the 
world. With its irregular seacoast, studded 
with harbors, bays, and islands, it gives great 
shelter to the small yachts, also its Great 
Lakes and inland waters make it possible 
for the people in the interior of the country 
to have their clubs and races. 

Its sailors have always held their own with 
the best in the world, and as proof of their 
superiority, the United States is custodian for 
all the International Cups of any note. Many 
people are apt to say, ''Oh, they w^on be- 
cause they sailed in their home waters." 
This is not true ; they won because they have 
been brought up on and in the water, have 
worked hard to perfect and advance the sci- 

164 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

ence, and to sail and handle their craft in a 
masterly way. That is the reason they have 
won and to-day stand above the world in 
racing yachts, propelled by the wind's force. 

It has been a survival of the fittest, with the 
thousands of young Americans sailing and 
racing their little boats as boys, finally grow- 
ing up to international fame as sailors. 

America, or the United States, will always 
stand ahead, in my opinion, leading always 
by a greater margin than before, and will 
always be protected and represented by as 
fine sailors as the world will ever produce. 



165 



CHAPTER XXXI 

THE INTERNATIONAL SONDER CLASS OF GER- 
MANY, SPAIN, AND THE UNITED STATES 

THE Sonder, or Special Class, as it is 
called, is for many reasons the most 
remarkable small racing class that 
we have, as, for the four years of its existence 
in this country, the critics, experts, and naval 
architects are still at a loss to decide upon the 
correct combination of measurements, weights, 
etc., that would go to make up the boat to 
win in all conditions of wind and water. In 
fact, from my own experience in the twelve 
boats I have designed, I believe it impossi- 
ble to embody in one boat all the points that 
would make her successful under all condi- 
tions. It would take at least two, and pos- 
sibly three, boats of entirely different design 
to cover every condition. This being the 
case, it is necessary to build the boat to sail 

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in the conditions of wind and water that pre- 
vail in that country where she is to be used. 
A good example of this is the fact that the 
German trio, in 1906, built for conditions that 
prevail at Kiel, Germany, met with defeat 
at the hands of the American boats off Mar- 
blehead. And in turn, in 1907, the American 
trio that went to Germany, being large flat 
boats with little ballast, lost to the German 
team of narrow, heavily ballasted boats, under 
extremely severe weather conditions off Kiel. 
I will go into particulars as regards these con- 
tests later on in this Chapter as I had the 
pleasure of sailing on one of the American 
boats in both series. 

The class originated in Germany, the re- 
strictions being drawn up there, and a great 
number of boats have been built, for, to begin 
with, there was a cost limit of only $1224, 
which now has been raised to $1440 in Ger- 
many and to $2400 in the United States. 
This allowed even the men of small means to 
own and sail a racing craft, and in order to 

167 



THE SMALL YACHT 

hold and increase the interest the Emperor 
of Germany offered valuable prizes to be 
sailed for each year during Kiel Week, and as 
many as twenty-five boats sometimes com- 
peted for them. 

The first boat built in America was the 
/^Uncle Sam/' in 1902. She was shipped to 
Kiel where she succeeded in winning the 
Emperor's Gold Cup, after which she was 
purchased by his Majesty and given over to 
the Navy for the purpose of educating various 
officers in the handling of this small racing 
type. This boat is still in existence, which 
speaks well for the restrictions under which 
she was constructed. 

In the summer of 1906 an arrangement was 
made between the Kaiserlicher Yacht Club 
of Kiel, Germany, and the Eastern Yacht 
Club of Marblehead, Massachusetts, for a 
series of races for the Roosevelt Cup, given 
by the Eastern Yacht Club, to be sailed off 
Marblehead in September. The teams were 
made up of three boats on a side — the first 

168 




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one winning three first places to take the Cup, 
and this series, is what gave the Class such 
impetus in this country. 

There were seventeen boats built to com- 
pete in the trial races — the designs varying 
all the way from the wide flat scow to the 
narrow sharp-ended hull, with heavy lead. 
The general restrictions were that the length 
on the water-line, plus the greatest beam plus 
the greatest draft, should not be more than 
thirty-two feet. Also that the boat should not 
weigh less than 4035 pounds with equipment 
aboard, and that the sail area rated should 
not be more than 550 square feet in the main- 
sail and jib. The table of restrictions follows : 

Measurement 

L plus B plus D must not exceed 32 feet (9.75 

meters). 

L equals length on water-line 
B " extreme beam 
D " " draft 

With complete outfit on hoard ready for racing, 
but without crew. There will be no time allowance. 

169 



THE SMALL YACHT 

Displacement 
Displacement must not be less than 4035 ' pounds 
(1830 kilograms), without crew. 
All yachts must be weighed. 

Cost of Construction 
The total cost of construction of the American 
yachts, including two suits of sails, must not exceed 
ten thousand marks ($2400). 

Construction 

The hull must be built of cedar, mahogany, or 
heavier wood, copper fastened (this term includes 
brass or composition bolts and screws). 

Double planking not allowed. 

The deck may be pine or any other wood. Deck 
and planking must not be less than f inches (16 mil- 
limeters) thick, no diagonal or ribband-carvel plank- 
ing nor composite building and no centerboards or 
leeboards allowed. The cockpit must not exceed 8 
feet (2.44 meters in length). The restriction on com- 
posite building does not prevent the use of a metal 
plate for a fin or of metals for interior trussing and 
bracing. 

Rig 

Big optional. No hollow or built up or bamboo 
spars allowed. Sail area must not exceed 550 square 

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ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

feet (51 square meters), measured according to the 
rules of the International Yacht Racing Union. 
Yachts must carry at least one entire outfit of spars 
and at least one complete suit of sails on board during 
each race. 

Certificate 

Every yacht must produce an oflBcial measurer's 
certificate stating that she has been built in accord- 
ance with the above conditions, a fact which shall be 
ascertained by the race committee before the begin- 
ning of the races. 

Crew 

The crew must be made up of amateur members 
of the yacht clubs which are admitted to the trial 
races and shall consist of not more than three persons, 
who must be citizens of the country in which the 
yacht was built. 

Conditions Governing the Races 
The races will be sailed according to the rules of 
the International Yacht Racing Union, under the 
joint control of the Kaiserlicher Yacht Club and the 
Eastern Yacht Club. 

These restrictions mean that a boat could 
be any length over-all, and that you could use 
any combination of water-line, beam, and 

171 



THE SMALL YACHT 

draft, so that naturally a wide difference of 
dimensions and weights resulted. One of 
the boats that year weighed over 5000 pounds 
and others were down to the given 4035. One, 
as per plans No. 38, was of the long exagger- 
ated overhang, narrow beam, hard bilged, 
flat shoal scow, and this boat was chosen to 
be one of the American Defenders. Another, 
of the same general type, only wider and 
deeper, with less bilge angle, and smoother 
lined, proved easily to be the fastest of the 
fleet in light, smooth weather; mainly, I 
think, on account of her very light ballast 
and wonderfully prepared surface. Her con- 
dition was as nearly perfect as it is possible 
to get, having a mahogany skin, highly pol- 
ished by trained piano polishers. She was 
also chosen, and the lines are shown under 
plans No. 37. 

The third boat on the team, and which 
eventually won the Roosevelt Cup, was of an 
entirely different type, being narrow with sharp 
ends, heavy displacement, and a compara- 

172 




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lively large quantity of ballast — about 2500 
pounds, as compared with 1700 on the scows. 
This did not, however, deter the believers 
in the scow type from continuing to build 
them, for in 1907 two scows were chosen, 
with one sharp-ended boat, to go to Germany 
to represent America. In the races at Kiel, 
which took place that summer, severe con- 
ditions of wind and water were met with, and 
the German boats, with their low sails, small 
narrow hulls, and very heavy lead, or ballast, 
were easily victorious. The only American 
boat to make any showing was the one with 
the smallest hull and sharp ends. And here 
I might add that the sails were very much 
against the success of the Americans, as they 
were too full for such severe conditions. The 
German boats having flat sails had a tremen- 
dous advantage, as the wind attained a veloc- 
ity of forty miles an hour during some of the 
heavy squalls. The full sails of the American 
boats were all aback, while the flat sails of the 
Germans were carried full most of the time. 

173 



THE SMALL YACHT 

Another surprising point was that on a broad 
reach in the heavy sea, the narrow, sharp boats 
carrying full sail were forced through the 
water at a greater speed than the scows with 
single reefs, which was all they could carry. 
Under a less weight of wind pressure the 
scow would outreach the smaller boat. 

On leaving Germany my mind was made 
up that the little hull with plenty of lead was 
the type to win with in the Sonder Class, and 
I have not changed my mind to any great 
extent since, as far as Kiel conditions go, 
unless it be in favor of the big scow, weighing 
4800 pounds, with 2600 pounds of lead. This 
type has not been thoroughly tried out, al- 
though she is considered by many to be the 
correct idea. She would, however, be abso- 
lutely useless in other than very heavy condi- 
tions, and so it would be a difficult matter to 
get her selected during trial races, especially 
at Marblehead. In 1908 only one powerful 
boat was built in this country, the plans being 
shown in design 41. 

174 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

She was very narrow, heavy displacement, 
excessive draft, and she proved to be the best 
of the American boats during that summer in 
a strong breeze and sea, going to windward 
in a remarkable manner, but slow reaching 
and running before the wind. 

On the other hand, in 1908, the races showed 
the sharp-ended boats to be of little value in 
conditions at Marblehead, as the only boats 
to win in the Class were two extreme scows 
with light ballast and the boat last mentioned. 
The winner of 1906 and her sister boat did 
not get a first place. 

The outcome of the 1908 races again set 
yachtsmen thinking as to what really was the 
correct type, and as yet this question has not 
been answered. The tendency, however, is 
to the broad flat boat for the 1909 trial 
races. 

Designs 46 and 51 show the modified 
wide scow with reverse overhangs and low 
ends ; also the refined narrow scow with less 
reverse ; generally a compromise in an attempt 

175 



THE SMALL YACHT 

to get a good average boat. These boats are 
being built for the 1909 races. 

Having, in a general way, covered the Ger- 
man and American types I shall say a few 
words about the Spanish Class that again 
puzzles the minds of the various designers. 

The American team of the year 1907, after 
leaving Germany, went to Bilbao and San 
Sebastian, Spain, for a series of races with the 
Spanish boats. The outcome of this series 
was a victory for Spain and the winner was an 
exceedingly narrow, sharp-ended boat w4th a 
heavy dead rise on the sections. The races at 
San Sebastian were drifting matches with an 
old ground swell rolling in from the Bay of 
Biscay. As I mentioned earlier in this book 
the sharp boats easily outdrifted the flat ones, 
especially in a rolling sea, again showing that 
the narrow, sharp- section boats were better in 
a slight roll, with no wind, although appar- 
ently fluky winds had something to do with 
the races being very unsatisfactory as a test 
of speed. 

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The following plan shows a sharp boat with 
a round, easy form, a boat that should be well 
adapted to foreign conditions, either in a light 
or heavy wind. (See design No. 42.) 

Now, having given in a general way what 
this Sonder Class has actually done, I will say 
something as regards the makeup of the 
different types, the American boats having 
shown a great diversity in design. 

From a first glance at the Sonder Class re- 
quirements, it would seem that the boat 
should be rigged as a cat boat, because the 
sail rating is the actual sail area of the main- 
sail plus the area of the fore triangle. This 
fore triangle has for a base line the intersec- 
tion of the headstay with the deck and the 
fore side of the mast ; and for a perpendicular, 
the intersection of the jib luff and the mast, or 
actually the highest jib halliard or spinnaker 
block. These areas added together must not 
be more than 550 square feet of area. This 
means that there will be a certain amount of 
area lost in the actual jib, as it would be im- 
12 177 



THE SMALL YACHT 

possible to completely fill the fore triangle 
with the jib. So it works out that there are 
actually about 525 square feet in the work- 
ing sails, if the boat is rigged with mainsail 
and jib. This being so, I decided to try cat 
rigs on my boats in 1906, and planned the 
hulls accordingly. 

Two of the boats that year were worked out 
under that rig with a great deal of care, but 
in the end were adjudged failures and their 
rig changed to jib and mainsails. One reason 
for this was that it was necessary to have the 
mast stepped well out on the forward over- 
hang, thus making it very difficult to hold the 
mast in place. Another reason was that the 
weight of the mast gaff, etc., being well for- 
ward, spoiled a sensitive hull and would not 
allow of free action, that is, the rise and fall 
of the hull in a seaway, which killed her life. 
The boats instantly showed more speed on 
being shifted back to the other rig, and one of 
them was later the first choice on the American 
team. The other steadily improved, until in 

178 




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ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

the summer of 1908, with a somewhat differ- 
ent balanced rig, she proved to be by far the 
fastest boat of the fleet in Ught weather. The 
Hnes are shown below (number 40), and her 
dimensions are 38 feet over-all; 19 feet 3 
inches water-line; 5 feet 5 inches draft; and 

7 feet 4 inches beam, with very low flat ends 
and weighing 4090 pounds. I am pleased to 
say that she was sailed by the youngest ama- 
teur in the fleet, he having had but three 
years' experience and he sailed against some 
of the best amateurs in the country. 

The boat that proved to be the best all- 
round boat in 1906 was a moderate formed, 
round, easy-lined, healthy type of little racer 
of the following dimensions : 35 feet 6 inches 
over-all, 19 feet 9 inches water-line, 6 feet 

8 inches beam, 5 feet draft. 

With a low rig and heavy ballast the 
entire craft weighed about 4500 pounds, and 
depending on her lead for her stability 
she was a good all-round boat. She used 
very flat English cut sails, setting to a 

179 



THE SMALL YACHT 

nicety, and her painted hull was beautifully 
smoothed. 

In 1907 there were comparatively few 
boats in the Trial Races for the selection of 
the team to go to Germany, and a sister boat 
of the " Champion " in 1906 was badly de- 
feated. Two light weather scows and a 1906 
boat were finally selected, none of which 
were first class in any way, though the best 
obtainable at the time. 

In 1908 one new boat was built on the fol- 
lowing plans: Her dimensions were 35 feet 
over-all; 19 feet 3 inches water-line; 6 feet 
10 inches beam; and 5 feet 10 inches draft, 
an excessive draft for these little boats, as 
proved by the season's racing, the deep fin 
seeming to be a drag in any conditions, ex- 
cepting a heavy blow to windward when she 
seemed at home. Under these conditions 
nothing could beat her, as she would hold on 
and go up across any bow in the fleet with 
apparently little effort, but she was slow 
across wind, or before it. She had a long, 

180 




Design 41^. Sail plan of jib and mainsail rig for Sonder boat 
Showing large mainsail and small jib 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

easy bow, especially adapted for a seaway, 
and her weight of 4450 pounds made her 
powerful, and although the center of gravity 
of the ballast was high up the combination 
was good for a breeze. (See design 41 a.) 

Another boat in the 1908 fleet was the 
crack of 1906, but either the other boats had 
improved or she was not in as good condition, 
for she w^as usually beaten by from one to 
three boats in the races which she entered. 
And so again the balance of favor for the new 
boats of 1909 was toward the developed scow 
form, less brutal perhaps than the old scows, 
but of the scow type. Designs 46 and 51 
for 1909 show the modifications: 

Most of the American boats are equipped 
with fairly full sails — that is, sails with con- 
siderable draft or flow in them, as these seem 
to give the best results in our ordinary mid- 
summer conditions. In the early spring and 
fall, however, hard flat sails are essential, as 
was proven last year (1908), when one of the 
large scows, that had won practically noth- 

181 



THE SMALL YACHT 

Ing up to that time, came out with a flat suit 
and easily defeated the fleet in three heavy 
blows, winning thereby the Quincy Chal- 
lenge Cup, raced for now by the Sonder 
Class. This win was accomplished mainly 
by the fact that she was able to point very 
high and still hold her headway, even though 
the hull was not especially good under the 
conditions. It is fair to add that the boat was 
almost perfectly handled by one of the finest 
amateurs in the country. 

The balance of these boats is almost as 
necessary as a good hull and helmsman, as 
they balance on a narrow fin, are long over- 
all, with the rig well inboard, and turn in a 
very short radius. Of course, in light weather 
the helm will be carried amidships, or pos- 
sibly a little lee helm is felt in very light 
drifts, but the minute the boat feels any wind 
pressure the helm should be in the center 
line, or slightly to weather. Then when it 
blows hard, the balance in a measure should 
remain about the same, anyway to wdndward. 

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It is in reaching that the boat will gripe, then 
being very hard on her helm, and to offset 
this trouble, trim the jib more or less flat and 
ease off the mainsail slightly and she will at 
once show better speed. 

The rig on several of the boats, such as 
halliards, main, and preventer backstays, lead 
below deck, thus offering less windage and 
making things more trim and snug. This, 
however, is carrying things pretty far unless 
the owner or skipper understands this sort of 
rigging pretty thoroughly. Wire rigging is 
quite generally used and all the halliards have 
tackles so that the sails may be set up during 
a race if necessary. In most of the boats the 
cockpit is amidships, thus bringing the crew 
over the center of buoyancy where they should 
be allowed to sit well down in the bottom, as 
practically none of the boats now use water- 
tight cockpits, some going so far as to leave 
out bottom boards or slats entirely, the crew 
sitting or standing, as the case may be, directly 
on the inside of the planks and floors. This 

183 



THE SMALL YACHT 

is done to save weight, as the bottom of the 
fin is the place for all ballast in these racing 
machines. 

As regards structural strains, etc., I have 
found the best method, and in fact the only 
one to stand the strain of three years' rac- 
ing, to be three sets of longitudinal trusses 
placed between deck and bottom, this only 
applying to the extreme flat-ended scow, as 
she is necessarily hard on herself in a seaway, 
and if the ends drop any the boat will go 
badly over length. She is only one foot and a 
few inches from deck to bottom for the greater 
part of her hull; has 2000 or more pounds 
of lead hung in the middle ; and with the low 
flat ends the pounding in a seaway is very 
severe, so it is necessary to thoroughly brace 
her. Plank on edge trusses, with lattice work 
and uprights, tie rods, etc., are very essential 
for this form, and it has always seemed to me 
to be the most satisfactory bracing, as well as 
the lightest. These trusses are shown on the 
construction plans very clearly. 

184 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

I think that the best combination of riff is 
about 425 square feet in the mainsail and 100 
square feet in the jib ; this, with the short base 
to the fore triangle allows of a good height for 
the spinnaker block, which gTeatly benefits 
the effectiveness of the spinnaker, as was 
proven by one of the boats in 1908, when her 
change in rig put her from a medium good 
boat to the best in the class, to my mind. 
This was due almost entirely to the raising of 
the spinnaker block clear of the mainsail, so 
giving the spinnaker head a chance to do 
good execution. It was not bothered in any 
way by the mainsail, so I have adopted this 
plan for the six boats I have designed for the 
summer of 1909. 

I looked over the German boats very care- 
fully in 1907 and they certainly have a great 
advantage in construction over anything that 
I have yet seen built in this country. The 
Spanish cedar used by them has been drying 
out for years and many of them were built 
with flush seams, having no calking what- 

185 



THE SMALL YACHT 

soever. This insured a good surface under 
any conditions, as there was no putty to 
squeeze out; also, instead of using rivets 
with bungs, of which there are about 4000 
in one of our boats, they use small brass or 
copper nails, small headed, and flush with 
the outer surface. The skin was varnished 
above the water ; with paint or potlead below 
the surface, and was polished to a high point 
of perfection. Their planking is very light, 
and on account of the small sharp-ended hulls 
they require very little interior bracing. These 
facts allow them to carry a very large percent- 
age of lead to total weight, about 60 per cent, 
which means about 2600 pounds of ballast — 
a very great advantage. They were also 
fairly heavy; weighing 4300 to 4600 pounds 
— another advantage in their weather con- 
ditions, and so they were able to lug their 
rigs far longer than the American boats. 

Their dimensions were very moderate — 
about 33 to 36 over-all, 4 feet 8 inches draft 
and 6 feet 6 inches beam, allowing thereby a 

186 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

long water-line of about 21 feet. They had 
very easy formed high ends, the angle of rise 
being twice as much as that of the Americans. 
There were no reverse curves in the profiles, 
but the overhangs ran straight from the 
middle body. Their sections were very round, 
with a heavy dead rise, and forward the sec- 
tions worked into a ''U'' shape, while the 
stern transoms were narrow and the lines on 
the whole exceptionally graceful, depending 
on the ballast for stability, having practically 
no initial stability in the hull. 

The sails used in 1907 were a great im- 
provement on those used over here in 1906, 
being well-cut and of good proportions, but 
of fairly heavy duck and very flat (little 
draft). They used roller booms for reefing, 
which are necessary under German weather 
conditions, as it will sometimes come up and 
blow thirty or forty miles an hour witJiout any 
warning, and to be able to reef quickly is a 
distinct advantage. In one race it was neces- 
sary for us, on the boat I was sailing on, to 

187 



THE SMALL YACHT 

lower our peak, ease the mainsail well off, 
and reach across the wind for ten or fifteen 
minutes, while the German boats rolled in a 
reef and went about their business, gaining 
many precious minutes in the operation. 

As before said, the German craft of 1907 
were the finest constructed boats of this class 
I have as yet seen. There is tremendous 
interest in this Sonder Class, mainly on ac- 
count of its international character, and as 
nearly as I can estimate there have been 
built, and now exist in the three countries, 
including the 1909 boats, between 90 and 100 
of this class, at a total cost of close to $150,000, 
which, if incidentals are considered, would 
bring the cost up to $200,000. Quite a sum 
for a small class. 

It may be of interest as showing the friendly 
feeling that exists between Germany and the 
United States, that after the races in 1906 the 
architects of the American team forwarded 
their plans to Germany, to be published and 
used by anyone who might be interested, and 

188 



ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING 

to help along the sport. In return the Crown 
Prince of Germany in 1907 sent me a set of 
plans of his boat '^Angela IV" for use over 
here. I know of no other international sport 
where such an open-handed policy prevails. 



189 



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